1.0 Introduction
Gender issues and gender relations are socially determined relations between men and women within and outside their households and communities. These relations are socially constructed through gender biased socialization over time and space and are institutionalised in society. Gender issue vary from community to community, and most of time the family or household, market, community and the state combine their practice and reinforce the ideology of the social construction of gender.
Social construction of gender in the community result to gender differences between men and women to represent socially constructed norms regarding the division of labour, and the distribution of power, responsibilities and rights between men and women, the basis for differentiation continues to be traced back to biological difference. This paper will discuss social construction of gender in community around the Nguru Mountains in Mvomero District, Morogoro.
1.1Background information
The community around the South Nguru landscape (1425 km2), located in the South Nguru Mountains, comprises the Kanga Forest Reserve (67 km2), Nguru South Forest Reserve (184 km2) and Mkindo Forest Reserve (86 km2) in the Mvomero District, Morogoro Region. The community is located 220 km northwest of Dar es Salaam at 500-2,300 m. above sea level. The community consists of 7 wards which include Kanga, Diongoya, Mhonda, Sungaji, Kibati, Maskati and Hembeti. The South Nguru Landscape is inhabited by approximately 108,993 people, of whom 50,000 are estimated to live in villages adjacent to the forest. The South Nguru community is characterized by signs of rural underdevelopment and environmental deterioration which typify many parts of Tanzania. About 26 percent of the population of the community lives below the basic poverty line (Tanzania’s basic needs poverty line is equivalent to US$ 0.79 per capita per day). The dominant ethnic groups are the Nguu and Kaguru, who are native to the area, and the Zigua, Luguru, Chagga, Pare, Bena, Sukuma, Kinga, Hehe, Nguni, Nyakyusa and Maasai, who are in-migrants. Agriculture is the principle source of livelihood and the main crops are maize, beans, yam, sorghum, cassava, sweet potato, banana, rice, coffee and cardamom. The small minority of the population (less than 2%) not dependent upon agriculture is engaged in brewing, livestock keeping, casual labour and operating small retail shops
Although Mvomero district council have explicit gender mainstreaming policies, a lack of practical experience in gender issues at local level means that the integration of gender considerations in development programming is not assured, this has resulted into gender inequalities which are social gender constructed. Therefore, there is a need to improve the real involvement of women in local development institutions.
2.0 Theoretical literature review
The experience shows that the community around the Nguru Mountains in Mvomero District experience gender inequalities and this is gender constructed whereby, male fail to ensure the appropriate inclusion of women in decision-making fora and management structure (LIVING Project, 2006). Stakeholders’ analysis research done around the South Nguru Mountains in Mvomero District, Tanzania (Kim el tal, 2006) showed that women, who head households 30% in Mvomero, bear at least 80% of the labor burden but do not have equal opportunities and rights concerning ownership and inheritance of land and do not generally control the earnings from crop sales. According to source of (http://www.unfpa.org/gender/violence.htm, 2007), this is to show that despite many international agreements affirming their human rights, women are still much more likely than men to be poor, malnourished and illiterate. They usually have less access than men to medical care, property ownership, credit, training and employment. They are far less likely than men to be politically active and far more likely to be victims of domestic violence.
Kabeer Naila, (1995) reports that norms and rules have material consequences for issues of women and men's relative access to and claims over different categories of resources. The normative underpinnings of sex difference lead to differences in the way responsibilities are allocated, resources are distributed, and rights are granted. Asymmetries or inequalities thus grow to represent "conflicts" of interest, so that challenges to the way social rules are constructed represent challenges to the entire organisation of society. How women negotiate these changes will vary depending on the ability or capacity of a woman to risk changes to the way her life has been lived. Social construction of differences between men and women is the basis on which rules/ resources/ responsibilities/power and rights are distributed or allocated between women and men in society resulting in discrimination. Hence discrimination is socially constructed and is based on social rules or norms. What are rules? Simply put, social norms or rules are "ways of doing things" or patterns that become routine over a period of time. These patterns are so socially legitimized that they become reproduced with economy, because of the intricate ways in which identity and roles are intertwined. For example, a social rule or norm is that men are breadwinners and women are home makers or that men are leaders and decision makers and women are followers and implementers of decisions. In accordance with the rules, starting from the household, women are expected to be obedient, submissive and fulfill household responsibilities while remaining in the background. None of the institutions provide resources to them - economic or social, which are seen (from the perspective of the social construction of gender) as irrelevant for them. This has serious consequence for women.
According to the source of http://www.unfpa.org, 2007, in nearly every country, women work longer hours than men, but are usually paid less and are more likely to live in poverty. In subsistence economies, women spend much of the day performing tasks to maintain the household, such as carrying water and collecting fuel wood. In many countries women are also responsible for agricultural production and market work. Often they take on paid work or entrepreneurial enterprises as well. Unpaid domestic work – from food preparation to care giving – directly affects the health and overall well being and quality of life of children and other household members. The need for women’s unpaid labour often increases with economic shocks, such as those associated with the HIV/AIDS pandemic or economic restructuring. Yet women's voices and lived experiences – whether as workers (paid and unpaid), citizens, or consumers – are still largely missing from debates on finance and development. Poor women do more unpaid work, work longer hours and may accept degrading working conditions during times of crisis, just to ensure that their families survive.
The source still argues that, in some developing countries, practices that subjugate and harm women – such as wife-beating, killings in the name of honour, female genital mutilation/cutting and dowry deaths – are condoned as being part of the natural order of things. Throughout much of Asia, a preference for male children results in the neglect and sometimes infanticide of girls, or their elimination by abortion in places where prenatal tests are available to determine the sex of the fetus.Forced early marriage of young girls or adolescents is another practice that can cause lifelong psychological as well as physical problems, especially those resulting from early childbearing. And as conflicts among ethnic groups rage, women and girls have increasingly become pawns of war, and face rape and forced pregnancies. FGM/FGC, coerced sex and early marriage are also factors in the spread of HIV to women.
3.0 Policy review
Due to inequalities between men and women as the result of gender socially constructed in many of the countries in the world, governments, the international community and civil society, including non-governmental organizations and the private sector, are called upon to take strategic action in the following critical areas of concern:
~ The persistent and increasing burden of poverty on women
~ Inequalities and inadequacies in and unequal access to education and training
~ Inequalities and inadequacies in and unequal access to health care and related services
~ Violence against women
~ The effects of armed or other kinds of conflict on women, including those living under foreign occupation
~ Inequality in economic structures and policies, in all forms of productive activities and in access to resources
~ Inequality between men and women in the sharing of power and decision-making at all levels
~ Insufficient mechanisms at all levels to promote the advancement of women
~ Lack of respect for and inadequate promotion and protection of the human rights of women
~ Stereotyping of women and inequality in women's access to and participation in all communication systems, especially in the media
~ Gender inequalities in the management of natural resources and in the safeguarding of the environment
~ Persistent discrimination against and violation of the rights of the girl child(United nation,1995)
At nation level gender inequalities exist because of gender social construction, this situation has been acknowledged by the government. According to (United Republic of Tanzania, 1992), Tanzania accepts and recognizes that important reproductive role played by women in the society. Historically women throughout the world have had the responsibility of nurturing the family. They are the reproducers, the nurturers and guardians of children and family. They are in the fact the nurturers of society. Despite the various steps taken, our country has not been completely successful in ensuring that women have the freedom, opportunity and respect that are enjoyed by men in economic, political, social and cultural development.
Also (United Republic of Tanzania, 1992), pin point that Tanzanian women are poor than men despite that fact that women are the major actors in productive and reproductive activities. The total population, approximately 51.6 % are women. They comprise about 54% of the economically active population in rural areas are engaged in agriculture, producing about 60% to 80% of all domestic work. Despite their contribution to society, Tanzanian women do not receive adequate remuneration for their work. Traditionally and culturally barriers still block women access to and control of land and other properties. Although women contribute most of the labour in productive activities, they have little access to the income generated as men continue to dominate decision making not only within the household but also at national level. Tanzanian women have limited access to employment opportunities in the formal sector. As a result, many have had to adopt survival strategies through the informal sector where many operate without support to extension service or credit. Many of the activities in the informal sector have increased the burden on women.
In education, the girl child has limited opportunity to pursue education. Despite special focus on girl’s education, enrollment in primary schools is still lower than that of male pupils because of parental preference for boy’s education. Only 27.3% of form V students and 24.3% of form VI students are women. This lower representation of women continues up to university level.
4.0 Empirical review
4.1 Over view of social gender construction in community around the Nguru Mountains
In general, gender issues and relation have been socially constructed. In most of the communities, gender inequalities exist, and consider men are better compared to women, and most of good things believed that are possessed by men. Communities consider men as strong, capable for sport and computer skills, have right for paid work, pursue physical science, right of power, rational and are self-reliance while women are considered to be soft, have the right for unpaid work, cooperation, powerless, emotional and pursue humanities. Taking a case study of the community around the Nguru Mountains, experience gender inequalities socially constructed as the result of their culture and history.
The Nguru Mountain community perceives that:-
Men make good leaders and have power in decision making on family and community benefit.
Women are dependent on men
Men have right to have education rather than women
Men are required to access and control resources at household level and community level in general.
Boy child is more valuable compared t girl child
Women are not good in leadership and business opportunities.
Women are not good in family expenditure decision making
Men are competent in searching market of family products compared to women
Home works (such as washing dish, clothes cooking etc) are the right to be performed by female only.
Women have got no right to inherit home’s properties
Women are not required to attend meeting, seminar and community development activities due to cultural prohibitions.
Women have got ability to fear from expressing themselves in front of audience, this seems to be a result of being neglected historically.
Women are not strong to perform some of the works which are considered to be harder works for instance faming.
Social gender constructed has resulted to differences among men and women, and in turn women lag behind in the development process from household level to national level. According to the gender issues assessment conducted by (Care Tanzania, 2007) in community around the Nguru mountains, the following results were revealed based on:-
4.1.1 Knowledge of Nguru mountains community on difference between sex and gender
Assessment results showed that 51.5% of men and 62.7% of women who participated in exercise said women cannot propose marriage to men, also 60% of men and 64.7% of women said that women are created to take care of children, another thing is that 54.5% of men and 64.7% of women said that it is a sex issue for men to be family leaders while it is gender issue. These percentages show that society assume some of gender issues as sex issues, which is implying that society has low knowledge on differences between gender and sex issues.
Also results shows that 66.7% of women who participated in filling questionnaires pointed out that women can’t be religious leaders, 62.7% of women said that there are more male miners than female miners, 64.7% of women said that it is not the job of father to change nappies, and 58.8% of women said that is a sex (biological) issue for men don’t cry when are in problems. This result shows that women are in a situation not able to differentiate between sex and gender issues. Also it shows that women agree with cultural and historical situation of being undermined by men in the society since they agree some of gender issues as right to be sex (biological) issues
4.1.2 Gender roles in Nguru mountains community
Assessment results showed that 60.6% of men said that taking care of children is both men and women’s responsibility, while 64.7% of women said that it is women’s responsibility. 43.9% of men said that cooking is both men and women’s responsibility, while 68.6% of women said that it is women’s responsibility. 56.1% of men said that buying items in market is both men and women’s responsibility, while 74.5% of women said that it is women’s responsibility. It shows that men were not read to fill in questionnaire that those responsibilities are done by women only shying from researchers. And more than 50% of participants said that the following responsibilities are done by female only and are biological such as bread feeding, giving birth etc). Also more than 50% said the following responsibilities are done by both male and female such as educate children, cultivating farm, weeding, be a leader in society, harvesting etc.
4.1.3 Access and control of resources and benefits in Nguru mountains community
Assessment results showed that more than 50% of men and women, said that both male and female access and control resources together in the society. And less than 10% of men and women said that women access and control resources such as land, farm, house, etc. It implies that even if women are involved in access and control of resources, still women are not empowered to access and control resources their own.
4.2 Social construction of gender at workplace
4.2.1 Rationale
CARE’s vision of a world of “hope, tolerance, and social justice” challenges the organization to work towards the eradication of discrimination in all its forms. CARE recognizes that in our societies and organizational cultures, biased stereotypes and social norms prevent women and men from exercising their free choice and from taking full and equal advantage of opportunities for individual development, contribution and reward. It is increasingly clear that gender disparities and biases undermine the effectiveness of CARE’s operations, in both stable and emergency contexts. CARE recognizes that gender equity is a critical component of the organization’s commitment to diversity. CARE Gender Policy, along with related policies that support diversity, seeks to clarify the organization’s expectations and guidelines to assist staff in their efforts to advance gender equity. The policy is marked by two fundamental principles:
· That all people, by virtue of their shared humanity, carry inherently equal dignity and rights. Therefore, CARE should always affirm and uphold the equal rights, opportunities and status of men and women.
· That each person, by virtue of her or his particular character and context, has a unique identity and combination of aspirations and abilities. Therefore, CARE must strive to understand how the particular conditions of each individual or social group shape its ability to achieve equal fulfillment, and create tailored opportunities for each to thrive.
4.2.2 Gender policy statement
In order to fulfill CARE mission and vision, CARE is dedicated to advancing Gender Equity in organization and in programs. CARE will improve the ability of men and women to work creatively and effectively in the organization and in communities in the developing world by increasing awareness of gender inequities and, by working with women and men to change the conditions that create and maintain them. We will advance gender equity within the institution through our management of human resources and the organizational culture, and within the communities we serve through our programming and our advocacy. Ultimately, by harnessing the full potential of all women and men, this commitment will improve our organizational effectiveness and the quality and impact of our programs.
4.2.3 Implementation of gender policy in workplace
CARE community recognizes that gender equity progress at different rates and by different means around the CARE world. Staff respects the flexibility of this process; at workplace, staff is accountable for achieving measurable progress toward a situation where men and women enjoy equal opportunities, rights and access to power and resources. Due to CARE gender policy, it has required changes in the way staff works. CARE staff and partners must develop innovative approaches that provide responsible support to communities to explore gender dynamics and advance gender equity.
5.0 Conclusion
Gender inequalities in the community are not innate, instead, are socially constructed and has created gap between men and women in all aspect of life. For instance, denial of chances to the woman for education by the family leads to fewer options in the work place or the fact that women are solely responsible for childcare in the family leads to disapproval of working women and women who seek market place substitutes for child care. The women are unprepared to be competitive in the market which exploits them as cheap labour as they are not seen as needing the same wages as men. They are also then denied participation in community decisions, and in turn have limited rights in household decisions as they are seen as not having enough exposure or on the grounds that it is not their role. Because of their lack of decision-making powers and capacity in the public sphere, they are unable to influence the market. Their lack of decision-making in the public sphere also means that they are denied valuable economic and political rights by the state. Because of the disadvantages they face women in turn are unable to influence the state as critical political constituencies. In this manner a cycle of discrimination is established and justified on the basis of the expectations of society with regard to women and men. The denial of equality and rights for women is based on biological difference as well as a notion of equivalent rights: men have a right to education to earn a living, women are economically provided for, or that change is costly.
Men need to be involved if gender equality is to be achieved Some research shows that men also want to be involved, and that many welcome the idea of mutually satisfying relationships built on trust and communication. Women cannot achieve gender equality and sexual and reproductive health without the cooperation and participation of men. Men – as community, political or religious leaders – often control access to reproductive health information and services, finances, transportation and other resources. As heads of state and government ministers, as leaders of religious and faith-based institutions, as judges, as heads of armies and other agencies of force, as village heads, or indeed as husbands and fathers, men often wield enormous power over many aspects of women’s lives.
In general, every individual and institution is expected to play their role in order to attain equity and equality goals. The target should be to mainstream gender issue into every aspect of life within our society. In doing so poverty will be reduced, hence national strategy for growth and reduction of poverty will be attained, as well as millennium development goals.
Monday, January 19, 2009
A RESEARCH PAPER ON HOW CLIMATE CHANGE HAS AFFECTED THE ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT
1.0 Introduction
The Earth's climate has changed throughout history. From glacial periods (or "ice ages") where ice covered significant portions of the Earth to interglacial periods where ice retreated to the poles or melted entirely. Since the Industrial Revolution (around 1750), human activities have substantially added to the amount of heat-trapping greenhouse gases in the atmosphere. The burning of fossil fuels and biomass (living matter such as vegetation) has also resulted in emissions of aerosols that absorb and emit heat, and reflect light. The addition of greenhouse gases and aerosols has changed the composition of the atmosphere. The changes in the atmosphere have likely influenced temperature, precipitation, storms and sea level (IPCC, 2007). However, the climate varies naturally, so determining what fraction of climate changes are due to natural variability versus human activities is challenging.
2.0 Theoretical Literature Review
This section provides a summary of the atmosphere and climate changes observed during the Industrial Era and current understanding of why the changes have occurred. Also in this section explain in details the effect of climate change with regards to economic development.
2.1 Atmosphere and climate changes
The release of greenhouse gases and aerosols resulting from human activities are changing the amount of radiation coming into and leaving the atmosphere, likely contributing to changes in climate. Greenhouse gas concentrations in the atmosphere have historically varied as a result of many natural processes (e.g. volcanic activity, changes in temperature, etc). However, since the Industrial Revolution humans have added a significant amount of greenhouse gases in the atmosphere by burning fossil fuels, cutting down forests and other activities. Because greenhouse gases absorb and emit heat, increasing their concentrations in the atmosphere will tend to have a warming effect. But the rate and amount of temperature increase is not known with absolute certainty. Changes in the atmospheric concentration of the major greenhouse gases are described below:
2.1.1Carbon dioxide (CO2)
According to the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration's (NOAA), 2006, Carbon dioxide concentrations has increased in atmosphere from approximately 280 parts per million (ppm) in pre-industrial times to 382 ppm in 2006 by 36 percent increase. Almost all of the increase is due to human activities. The current rate of increase in CO2 concentrations is about 1.9 ppmv/year. Present CO2 concentrations are higher than any time in at least the last 650,000 years (IPCC, 2007).
2.1.2Methane (CH4)
Methane (CH4) is more abundant in the Earth’s atmosphere now than at any time in at least the past 650,000 years Methane concentrations increased sharply during most of the 20th century and are now 148% above pre-industrial levels. In recent decades, the rate of increase has slowed considerably (IPCC, 2007).
2.1.3 Nitrous oxide (N2O)
Nitrous oxide (N2O) has increased approximately 18 percent in the past 200 years and continues to increase (see Figure 3). For about 11,500 years before the industrial period, the concentration of N2O varied only slightly. It increased relatively rapidly toward the end of the 20th century (IPCC, 2007).
2.1.4Tropospheric ozone (O3)
Tropospheric ozone is created by chemical reactions from automobile, power plant and other industrial and commercial source emissions in the presence of sunlight. It is estimated that O3 has increased by about 36% since the pre-industrial era, although substantial variations exist for regions and overall trends. Besides being a greenhouse gas, ozone can also be a harmful air pollutant at ground level, especially for people with respiratory diseases and children and adults who are active outdoors. Measures are being taken to reduce ozone emissions in the U.S. (through the Clean Air Act) and also in other countries (IPCC, 2007).
2.1.5 Fluorinated gases
Fluorinated gases such as hydrofluorocarbons (HFCs), perfluorocarbons (PFCs), and sulfur hexafluoride (SF6) are frequently used as substitutes for CFCs and HCFCs and are increasing in the atmosphere. These various fluorinated gases are sometimes called "high global warming potential greenhouse gases" because, molecule for molecule, they trap more heat than CO2 (IPCC, 2007).
2.1.6 Aerosols
The burning of fossil fuels and biomass (living matter such as vegetation) has resulted in aerosol emissions into the atmosphere. Aerosols absorb and emit heat, reflect light and, depending on their properties, can either cool or warm the atmosphere. (NASA, 2006)
2.2 Temperature Changes
Temperatures are changing in the lower atmosphere - from the Earth’s surface all the way through the stratosphere (9-14 miles above the Earth’s surface). Scientists are working to document temperature trends and determine their causes.
2.2.1Surface Temperature Change
Records from land stations and ships indicate that the global mean surface temperature warmed by between 1.0 and 1.7°F since 1850. These records indicate a near level trend in temperatures from 1880 to about 1910, a rise to 1945, a slight decline to about 1975, and a rise to present (NRC, 2006). The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) concluded in 2007 that warming of the climate system is now “unequivocal,” based on observations of increases in global average air and ocean temperatures, widespread melting of snow and ice, and rising global average sea level (IPCC, 2007).
According to the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration's (NOAA, 2006) and the National Aeronautics and Space Administration's (NASA, 2006):
· Since the mid 1970s, the average surface temperature has warmed about 1°F.
· The Earth’s surface is currently warming at a rate of about 0.32ºF/decade or 3.2°F/century.
· The five warmest years over last century have likely been: 2005, 1998, 2002, 2003, 2006. The top 10 warmest years have all occurred since 1990.
· The warming trend is seen in both daily maximum and minimum temperatures, with minimum temperatures increasing at a faster rate than maximum temperatures.
· Land areas have tended to warm faster than ocean areas and the winter months have warmed faster than summer months.
· Widespread reductions in the number of days below freezing occurred during the latter half of the 20th century in the United States as well as most land areas of the Northern Hemisphere and areas of the Southern Hemisphere.
· Average temperatures in the Arctic have increased at almost twice the global rate in the past 100 years.
2.2.2Tropospheric Temperature Change
According to (NOAA, 2006), measurements of the Earth’s temperature taken by weather balloons (also known as radiosondes) and satellites from the surface to 5-8 miles into the atmosphere - the layer called the troposphere reveal warming trends as follows:
· For the period 1958-2006, temperatures measured by weather balloons warmed at a rate of 0.22°F per decade near the surface and 0.27°F per decade in the mid-troposphere. The 2006 global mid-troposphere temperatures were 1.01°F above the 1971-2000 average, the third warmest on record.
· For the period beginning in 1979, when satellite measurements of troposphere temperatures began, various satellite data sets for the mid-troposphere showed similar rates of warming — ranging from 0.09°F per decade to 0.34°F per decade, depending on the method of analysis.
2.2.3Stratospheric Temperature Change
Weather balloons and satellites have also taken temperature readings in the stratosphere – the layer 9-14 miles above the Earth’s surface. This level of the atmosphere has cooled. The cooling is consistent with observed stratospheric ozone depletion since ozone is a greenhouse gas and has a warming effect when present. It’s also likely that increased greenhouse gas concentrations in the troposphere are contributing to cooling in the stratosphere as predicted by radioactive theory (EPA, 2001).
2.3 Effect of climate change on economic development
2.3.1 Health
Throughout the world, the prevalence of some diseases and other threats to human health depend largely on local climate. Extreme temperatures can lead directly to loss of life, while climate-related disturbances in ecological systems, such as changes in the range of infective parasites, can indirectly impact the incidence of serious infectious diseases. In addition, warm temperatures can increase air and water pollution, which in turn harms human health. Human health is strongly affected by social, political, economic, environmental and technological factors, including urbanization, affluence, scientific developments, individual behavior and individual vulnerability (e.g., genetic makeup, nutritional status, emotional well-being, age, gender and economic status). The extent and nature of climate change impacts on human health vary by region, by relative vulnerability of population groups, by the extent and duration of exposure to climate change itself and by society’s ability to adapt to or cope with the change.
According to (IPCC, 2007), Human beings are exposed to climate change through changing weather patterns (for example, more intense and frequent extreme events) and indirectly through changes in water, air, food quality and quantity, ecosystems, agriculture, and economy. At this early stage the effects are small but are projected to progressively increase in all countries and regions. (WHO, 2003) reports that Climate change may increase the risk of some infectious diseases, particularly those diseases that appear in warm areas and are spread by mosquitoes and other insects. These "vector-borne" diseases include malaria, dengue fever, yellow fever, and encephalitis. Also, algal blooms could occur more frequently as temperatures warm — particularly in areas with polluted waters — in which case diseases (such as cholera) that tend to accompany algal blooms could become more frequent. Higher temperatures, in combination with favorable rainfall patterns, could prolong disease transmission seasons in some locations where certain diseases already exist. In other locations, climate change will decrease transmission via reductions in rainfall or temperatures that are too high for transmission. For example, temperature and humidity levels must be sufficient for certain disease-carrying vectors, such as ticks that carry Lyme disease, to thrive. And climate change could push temperature and humidity levels either towards or away from optimum conditions for the survival rate of ticks.
2.3.2 Agriculture
Agriculture is highly sensitive to climate variability and weather extremes, such as droughts, floods and severe storms. The forces that shape our climate are also critical to farm productivity. Human activity has already changed atmospheric characteristics such as temperature, rainfall, levels of carbon dioxide (CO2) and ground level ozone. The scientific community expects such trends to continue. While food production may benefit from a warmer climate, the increased potential for droughts, floods and heat waves will pose challenges for farmers. Additionally, the enduring changes in climate, water supply and soil moisture could make it less feasible to continue crop production in certain regions. According to (IPCC, 2007), recent studies indicate that increased frequency of heat stress, droughts and floods negatively affect crop yields and livestock beyond the impacts of mean climate change, creating the possibility for surprises, with impacts that are larger, and occurring earlier, than predicted using changes in mean variables alone. This is especially the case for subsistence sectors at low latitudes. Climate variability and change also modify the risks of fires, pest and pathogen outbreak, negatively affecting food, fiber and forestry.
2.3.3Ecosystems and natural resources
Climate is an integral part of ecosystems and organisms have adapted to their regional climate over time. Climate change is a factor that has the potential to alter ecosystems and the many resources and services they provide to each other and to society. Human societies depend on ecosystems for the natural, cultural, spiritual, recreational and aesthetic resources they provide.
In various regions across the world, some high-altitude and high-latitude ecosystems have already been affected by changes in climate. The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change reviewed relevant published studies of biological systems and concluded that 20 percent to 30 percent of species assessed may be at risk of extinction from climate change impacts within this century if global mean temperatures exceed 2-3 °C (3.6-5.4 °F) relative to pre-industrial levels (IPCC, 2007). These changes can cause adverse or beneficial effects on species. For example, climate change could benefit certain plant or insect species by increasing their ranges. The resulting impacts on ecosystems and humans, however, could be positive or negative depending on whether these species were invasive (e.g., weeds or mosquitoes) or if they were valuable to humans (e.g., food crops or pollinating insects). The risk of extinction could increase for many species, especially those that are already endangered or at risk due to isolation by geography or human development, low population numbers, or a narrow temperature tolerance range. According to (IPCC, 2007), all regions of the world show an overall net negative impact of climate change on water resources and freshwater ecosystems. Areas in which runoff is projected to decline are likely to face a reduction in the value of the services provided by water resources. The beneficial impacts of increased annual runoff in other areas are likely to be tempered in some areas by negative effects of increased precipitation variability and seasonal runoff shifts on water supply, water quality and flood risks. The US Environmental protection agency (EPA), 2001, reports that national Parks and other protected areas harbor unique environments and wildlife. This raises particular concerns about the vulnerability of these ecosystems to a changing climate. Many parks are designated to protect rare natural resources or particular species of plants and animals. Changes in climate could create new stresses on natural communities, and, in the absence of adaptation, lead to the loss of valued resources.
3.0 Empirical Literature Review
3.1 Climate change and poverty: Experience of communities around South Nguru Mountains, Mvomero District in Morogoro Region
The South Nguru Forest Landscape (1425 km2), located in the South Nguru Mountains at an altitude of between 760 to 2,300 metres above the sea level, comprises the Kanga Forest Reserve (67 km2), Nguru South Forest Reserve (184 km2) and Mkindo Forest Reserve (86 km2). The Landscape is located in the Mvomero district - Morogoro Region, it is inhabited by approximately 60,000 people.
Climate change is already occurring in South Nguru communities. It is having a disproportionate effect on the lives of poor people. Due to climate change impacts (more extreme weather, less predictable seasons), today South Nguru Mountains communities experience periodic droughts and flooding. Changes in the mean temperature and rainfall, and the increased variability of rainfall, together prolong the length of dry seasons annually and increase the severity of periodic droughts. Changes in climate have significant impacts on South Nguru’s rain-fed agriculture and food production. Warming has shortened the growing season and, together with reduced rainfall, reduces water availability. Also, warmer climate has increased crop losses caused by weeds, diseases and pests. (Parry et al., 1999).
Changes in climate have increased frequency and intensity of fires caused by human induce shifts in geographic distribution of plant species and associations and thus land cover. For example, grassland savannah is likely to replace forests and woodlands in many places. Deforestations have significant adverse consequences for economic and physical wellbeing in the area. Forests and woodlands are an important source of fuel in area, where biomass accounts for 90 percent of total energy use. About 80 percent of fuel wood is used for household consumption. The availability of fuel for cooking is important because it influences the nutritional value of diet (Barany et al., 2001).
Changes in climate and climate impacts have direct and indirect impacts on human health. Warming has increased the incidence of insect-borne diseases such as malaria, schistosomiasis and trypanosomiasis in the area. The increased frequency of droughts and flooding has increased the frequency and magnitude of epidemics of water-borne diseases such as typhoid and cholera, as well as to influence the incidence of mosquito-borne diseases. There are also intimate connections between nutritional status and health. In general, malnutrition and food shortages have increased morbidity and mortality related to infectious diseases. (IPCC, 2007; McMichael et al., 1996; Patz et al., 2002)
4.0 Policy Review
Tanzania is committed to protect environment and natural resources, in order to make sure that climate change is rectified which caused by environment problems, the government has put in place policies which try to protect environment. Down here the paper will discuss three policies (environment, forest and tourism) with regards to respond to environment problems as the results of climate change. According to Tanzania environmental policy (1997), the policy document seeks provide the framework for making fundamental change that are needed to bring environmental considerations into the mainstream of decision making in Tanzania. Tanzania environmental policy seeks to provide policy guidelines, plans and give guidance to the determination of priority actions, and provides for monitoring and regular review of policies, plans and programmes. There is a clear cause and effect relationship between poverty and environmental degradation due to climate change. Environmental degradation as the result of change in climate leads to widespread poverty, equally, poverty is a habitual cause of environmental degradation as it undermines people’s capacity to manage resources wisely. The paper has realized that environmental protection is a social and economic necessity. It is an integral component of sustainable development. The Tanzania environment policy is clear that Tanzania has taken an active part in the preparation for, and during the United Nations conference on environment and development which enshrined the integration of environmental concerns and economic development in the Rio Genera declaration on Environment and development and Agenda 21. Also Tanzania is working closely with other countries in the region and the international community to contribute towards a peaceful, healthier and better global environment for present and future generations. Due to change in climate has caused many problems in environment. Tanzania has identified six major problems for urgent attention. These are problems of:-
· Land degradation
· Lack of accessible good quality water
· Environment pollutions
· Loss of wildlife habitats and biodiversity
· Deterioration of aquatic systems
· Deforestations
Each of these is important to the economic well being of the country and the health of the people. According to (URT, 1997), in order to solve environment problem caused by change in climate, the government has taken a number of important measures, to promote political and economic change. Efforts are being made by the government through economic reforms, to nudge the economic system towards a free market economy with increased role for the independent sector. The restructuring and adjustment of the economy, including macro-economic changes, will impact on the use and allocation of natural resources and on the environment.
5.0 Conclusion
It is important for the government to pay attention on early warning system. Natural disaster need for the government to educate people to adapt (versus coping) mechanisms. It is clear that climate change has an effect to peoples’ life. Climate change may cause health problems, decrease livelihoods productivity and food insecurity, loss of rich natural resource and emerge of conflict between pastoralists and farmers on limited pasture. In order to fight with the effect of climate change there is a need to take action at different levels of actors (i.e home, village, local government, nation, regions and international).
The Earth's climate has changed throughout history. From glacial periods (or "ice ages") where ice covered significant portions of the Earth to interglacial periods where ice retreated to the poles or melted entirely. Since the Industrial Revolution (around 1750), human activities have substantially added to the amount of heat-trapping greenhouse gases in the atmosphere. The burning of fossil fuels and biomass (living matter such as vegetation) has also resulted in emissions of aerosols that absorb and emit heat, and reflect light. The addition of greenhouse gases and aerosols has changed the composition of the atmosphere. The changes in the atmosphere have likely influenced temperature, precipitation, storms and sea level (IPCC, 2007). However, the climate varies naturally, so determining what fraction of climate changes are due to natural variability versus human activities is challenging.
2.0 Theoretical Literature Review
This section provides a summary of the atmosphere and climate changes observed during the Industrial Era and current understanding of why the changes have occurred. Also in this section explain in details the effect of climate change with regards to economic development.
2.1 Atmosphere and climate changes
The release of greenhouse gases and aerosols resulting from human activities are changing the amount of radiation coming into and leaving the atmosphere, likely contributing to changes in climate. Greenhouse gas concentrations in the atmosphere have historically varied as a result of many natural processes (e.g. volcanic activity, changes in temperature, etc). However, since the Industrial Revolution humans have added a significant amount of greenhouse gases in the atmosphere by burning fossil fuels, cutting down forests and other activities. Because greenhouse gases absorb and emit heat, increasing their concentrations in the atmosphere will tend to have a warming effect. But the rate and amount of temperature increase is not known with absolute certainty. Changes in the atmospheric concentration of the major greenhouse gases are described below:
2.1.1Carbon dioxide (CO2)
According to the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration's (NOAA), 2006, Carbon dioxide concentrations has increased in atmosphere from approximately 280 parts per million (ppm) in pre-industrial times to 382 ppm in 2006 by 36 percent increase. Almost all of the increase is due to human activities. The current rate of increase in CO2 concentrations is about 1.9 ppmv/year. Present CO2 concentrations are higher than any time in at least the last 650,000 years (IPCC, 2007).
2.1.2Methane (CH4)
Methane (CH4) is more abundant in the Earth’s atmosphere now than at any time in at least the past 650,000 years Methane concentrations increased sharply during most of the 20th century and are now 148% above pre-industrial levels. In recent decades, the rate of increase has slowed considerably (IPCC, 2007).
2.1.3 Nitrous oxide (N2O)
Nitrous oxide (N2O) has increased approximately 18 percent in the past 200 years and continues to increase (see Figure 3). For about 11,500 years before the industrial period, the concentration of N2O varied only slightly. It increased relatively rapidly toward the end of the 20th century (IPCC, 2007).
2.1.4Tropospheric ozone (O3)
Tropospheric ozone is created by chemical reactions from automobile, power plant and other industrial and commercial source emissions in the presence of sunlight. It is estimated that O3 has increased by about 36% since the pre-industrial era, although substantial variations exist for regions and overall trends. Besides being a greenhouse gas, ozone can also be a harmful air pollutant at ground level, especially for people with respiratory diseases and children and adults who are active outdoors. Measures are being taken to reduce ozone emissions in the U.S. (through the Clean Air Act) and also in other countries (IPCC, 2007).
2.1.5 Fluorinated gases
Fluorinated gases such as hydrofluorocarbons (HFCs), perfluorocarbons (PFCs), and sulfur hexafluoride (SF6) are frequently used as substitutes for CFCs and HCFCs and are increasing in the atmosphere. These various fluorinated gases are sometimes called "high global warming potential greenhouse gases" because, molecule for molecule, they trap more heat than CO2 (IPCC, 2007).
2.1.6 Aerosols
The burning of fossil fuels and biomass (living matter such as vegetation) has resulted in aerosol emissions into the atmosphere. Aerosols absorb and emit heat, reflect light and, depending on their properties, can either cool or warm the atmosphere. (NASA, 2006)
2.2 Temperature Changes
Temperatures are changing in the lower atmosphere - from the Earth’s surface all the way through the stratosphere (9-14 miles above the Earth’s surface). Scientists are working to document temperature trends and determine their causes.
2.2.1Surface Temperature Change
Records from land stations and ships indicate that the global mean surface temperature warmed by between 1.0 and 1.7°F since 1850. These records indicate a near level trend in temperatures from 1880 to about 1910, a rise to 1945, a slight decline to about 1975, and a rise to present (NRC, 2006). The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) concluded in 2007 that warming of the climate system is now “unequivocal,” based on observations of increases in global average air and ocean temperatures, widespread melting of snow and ice, and rising global average sea level (IPCC, 2007).
According to the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration's (NOAA, 2006) and the National Aeronautics and Space Administration's (NASA, 2006):
· Since the mid 1970s, the average surface temperature has warmed about 1°F.
· The Earth’s surface is currently warming at a rate of about 0.32ºF/decade or 3.2°F/century.
· The five warmest years over last century have likely been: 2005, 1998, 2002, 2003, 2006. The top 10 warmest years have all occurred since 1990.
· The warming trend is seen in both daily maximum and minimum temperatures, with minimum temperatures increasing at a faster rate than maximum temperatures.
· Land areas have tended to warm faster than ocean areas and the winter months have warmed faster than summer months.
· Widespread reductions in the number of days below freezing occurred during the latter half of the 20th century in the United States as well as most land areas of the Northern Hemisphere and areas of the Southern Hemisphere.
· Average temperatures in the Arctic have increased at almost twice the global rate in the past 100 years.
2.2.2Tropospheric Temperature Change
According to (NOAA, 2006), measurements of the Earth’s temperature taken by weather balloons (also known as radiosondes) and satellites from the surface to 5-8 miles into the atmosphere - the layer called the troposphere reveal warming trends as follows:
· For the period 1958-2006, temperatures measured by weather balloons warmed at a rate of 0.22°F per decade near the surface and 0.27°F per decade in the mid-troposphere. The 2006 global mid-troposphere temperatures were 1.01°F above the 1971-2000 average, the third warmest on record.
· For the period beginning in 1979, when satellite measurements of troposphere temperatures began, various satellite data sets for the mid-troposphere showed similar rates of warming — ranging from 0.09°F per decade to 0.34°F per decade, depending on the method of analysis.
2.2.3Stratospheric Temperature Change
Weather balloons and satellites have also taken temperature readings in the stratosphere – the layer 9-14 miles above the Earth’s surface. This level of the atmosphere has cooled. The cooling is consistent with observed stratospheric ozone depletion since ozone is a greenhouse gas and has a warming effect when present. It’s also likely that increased greenhouse gas concentrations in the troposphere are contributing to cooling in the stratosphere as predicted by radioactive theory (EPA, 2001).
2.3 Effect of climate change on economic development
2.3.1 Health
Throughout the world, the prevalence of some diseases and other threats to human health depend largely on local climate. Extreme temperatures can lead directly to loss of life, while climate-related disturbances in ecological systems, such as changes in the range of infective parasites, can indirectly impact the incidence of serious infectious diseases. In addition, warm temperatures can increase air and water pollution, which in turn harms human health. Human health is strongly affected by social, political, economic, environmental and technological factors, including urbanization, affluence, scientific developments, individual behavior and individual vulnerability (e.g., genetic makeup, nutritional status, emotional well-being, age, gender and economic status). The extent and nature of climate change impacts on human health vary by region, by relative vulnerability of population groups, by the extent and duration of exposure to climate change itself and by society’s ability to adapt to or cope with the change.
According to (IPCC, 2007), Human beings are exposed to climate change through changing weather patterns (for example, more intense and frequent extreme events) and indirectly through changes in water, air, food quality and quantity, ecosystems, agriculture, and economy. At this early stage the effects are small but are projected to progressively increase in all countries and regions. (WHO, 2003) reports that Climate change may increase the risk of some infectious diseases, particularly those diseases that appear in warm areas and are spread by mosquitoes and other insects. These "vector-borne" diseases include malaria, dengue fever, yellow fever, and encephalitis. Also, algal blooms could occur more frequently as temperatures warm — particularly in areas with polluted waters — in which case diseases (such as cholera) that tend to accompany algal blooms could become more frequent. Higher temperatures, in combination with favorable rainfall patterns, could prolong disease transmission seasons in some locations where certain diseases already exist. In other locations, climate change will decrease transmission via reductions in rainfall or temperatures that are too high for transmission. For example, temperature and humidity levels must be sufficient for certain disease-carrying vectors, such as ticks that carry Lyme disease, to thrive. And climate change could push temperature and humidity levels either towards or away from optimum conditions for the survival rate of ticks.
2.3.2 Agriculture
Agriculture is highly sensitive to climate variability and weather extremes, such as droughts, floods and severe storms. The forces that shape our climate are also critical to farm productivity. Human activity has already changed atmospheric characteristics such as temperature, rainfall, levels of carbon dioxide (CO2) and ground level ozone. The scientific community expects such trends to continue. While food production may benefit from a warmer climate, the increased potential for droughts, floods and heat waves will pose challenges for farmers. Additionally, the enduring changes in climate, water supply and soil moisture could make it less feasible to continue crop production in certain regions. According to (IPCC, 2007), recent studies indicate that increased frequency of heat stress, droughts and floods negatively affect crop yields and livestock beyond the impacts of mean climate change, creating the possibility for surprises, with impacts that are larger, and occurring earlier, than predicted using changes in mean variables alone. This is especially the case for subsistence sectors at low latitudes. Climate variability and change also modify the risks of fires, pest and pathogen outbreak, negatively affecting food, fiber and forestry.
2.3.3Ecosystems and natural resources
Climate is an integral part of ecosystems and organisms have adapted to their regional climate over time. Climate change is a factor that has the potential to alter ecosystems and the many resources and services they provide to each other and to society. Human societies depend on ecosystems for the natural, cultural, spiritual, recreational and aesthetic resources they provide.
In various regions across the world, some high-altitude and high-latitude ecosystems have already been affected by changes in climate. The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change reviewed relevant published studies of biological systems and concluded that 20 percent to 30 percent of species assessed may be at risk of extinction from climate change impacts within this century if global mean temperatures exceed 2-3 °C (3.6-5.4 °F) relative to pre-industrial levels (IPCC, 2007). These changes can cause adverse or beneficial effects on species. For example, climate change could benefit certain plant or insect species by increasing their ranges. The resulting impacts on ecosystems and humans, however, could be positive or negative depending on whether these species were invasive (e.g., weeds or mosquitoes) or if they were valuable to humans (e.g., food crops or pollinating insects). The risk of extinction could increase for many species, especially those that are already endangered or at risk due to isolation by geography or human development, low population numbers, or a narrow temperature tolerance range. According to (IPCC, 2007), all regions of the world show an overall net negative impact of climate change on water resources and freshwater ecosystems. Areas in which runoff is projected to decline are likely to face a reduction in the value of the services provided by water resources. The beneficial impacts of increased annual runoff in other areas are likely to be tempered in some areas by negative effects of increased precipitation variability and seasonal runoff shifts on water supply, water quality and flood risks. The US Environmental protection agency (EPA), 2001, reports that national Parks and other protected areas harbor unique environments and wildlife. This raises particular concerns about the vulnerability of these ecosystems to a changing climate. Many parks are designated to protect rare natural resources or particular species of plants and animals. Changes in climate could create new stresses on natural communities, and, in the absence of adaptation, lead to the loss of valued resources.
3.0 Empirical Literature Review
3.1 Climate change and poverty: Experience of communities around South Nguru Mountains, Mvomero District in Morogoro Region
The South Nguru Forest Landscape (1425 km2), located in the South Nguru Mountains at an altitude of between 760 to 2,300 metres above the sea level, comprises the Kanga Forest Reserve (67 km2), Nguru South Forest Reserve (184 km2) and Mkindo Forest Reserve (86 km2). The Landscape is located in the Mvomero district - Morogoro Region, it is inhabited by approximately 60,000 people.
Climate change is already occurring in South Nguru communities. It is having a disproportionate effect on the lives of poor people. Due to climate change impacts (more extreme weather, less predictable seasons), today South Nguru Mountains communities experience periodic droughts and flooding. Changes in the mean temperature and rainfall, and the increased variability of rainfall, together prolong the length of dry seasons annually and increase the severity of periodic droughts. Changes in climate have significant impacts on South Nguru’s rain-fed agriculture and food production. Warming has shortened the growing season and, together with reduced rainfall, reduces water availability. Also, warmer climate has increased crop losses caused by weeds, diseases and pests. (Parry et al., 1999).
Changes in climate have increased frequency and intensity of fires caused by human induce shifts in geographic distribution of plant species and associations and thus land cover. For example, grassland savannah is likely to replace forests and woodlands in many places. Deforestations have significant adverse consequences for economic and physical wellbeing in the area. Forests and woodlands are an important source of fuel in area, where biomass accounts for 90 percent of total energy use. About 80 percent of fuel wood is used for household consumption. The availability of fuel for cooking is important because it influences the nutritional value of diet (Barany et al., 2001).
Changes in climate and climate impacts have direct and indirect impacts on human health. Warming has increased the incidence of insect-borne diseases such as malaria, schistosomiasis and trypanosomiasis in the area. The increased frequency of droughts and flooding has increased the frequency and magnitude of epidemics of water-borne diseases such as typhoid and cholera, as well as to influence the incidence of mosquito-borne diseases. There are also intimate connections between nutritional status and health. In general, malnutrition and food shortages have increased morbidity and mortality related to infectious diseases. (IPCC, 2007; McMichael et al., 1996; Patz et al., 2002)
4.0 Policy Review
Tanzania is committed to protect environment and natural resources, in order to make sure that climate change is rectified which caused by environment problems, the government has put in place policies which try to protect environment. Down here the paper will discuss three policies (environment, forest and tourism) with regards to respond to environment problems as the results of climate change. According to Tanzania environmental policy (1997), the policy document seeks provide the framework for making fundamental change that are needed to bring environmental considerations into the mainstream of decision making in Tanzania. Tanzania environmental policy seeks to provide policy guidelines, plans and give guidance to the determination of priority actions, and provides for monitoring and regular review of policies, plans and programmes. There is a clear cause and effect relationship between poverty and environmental degradation due to climate change. Environmental degradation as the result of change in climate leads to widespread poverty, equally, poverty is a habitual cause of environmental degradation as it undermines people’s capacity to manage resources wisely. The paper has realized that environmental protection is a social and economic necessity. It is an integral component of sustainable development. The Tanzania environment policy is clear that Tanzania has taken an active part in the preparation for, and during the United Nations conference on environment and development which enshrined the integration of environmental concerns and economic development in the Rio Genera declaration on Environment and development and Agenda 21. Also Tanzania is working closely with other countries in the region and the international community to contribute towards a peaceful, healthier and better global environment for present and future generations. Due to change in climate has caused many problems in environment. Tanzania has identified six major problems for urgent attention. These are problems of:-
· Land degradation
· Lack of accessible good quality water
· Environment pollutions
· Loss of wildlife habitats and biodiversity
· Deterioration of aquatic systems
· Deforestations
Each of these is important to the economic well being of the country and the health of the people. According to (URT, 1997), in order to solve environment problem caused by change in climate, the government has taken a number of important measures, to promote political and economic change. Efforts are being made by the government through economic reforms, to nudge the economic system towards a free market economy with increased role for the independent sector. The restructuring and adjustment of the economy, including macro-economic changes, will impact on the use and allocation of natural resources and on the environment.
5.0 Conclusion
It is important for the government to pay attention on early warning system. Natural disaster need for the government to educate people to adapt (versus coping) mechanisms. It is clear that climate change has an effect to peoples’ life. Climate change may cause health problems, decrease livelihoods productivity and food insecurity, loss of rich natural resource and emerge of conflict between pastoralists and farmers on limited pasture. In order to fight with the effect of climate change there is a need to take action at different levels of actors (i.e home, village, local government, nation, regions and international).
A PAPER ABOUT AN ANALYSIS OF MAJOR CAUSES AND IMPACT OF POLITICAL, ECONOMIC AND SOCIAL CONFLICTS IN AFRICA AND TANZANIA IN PARTICULAR
CHAPTER ONE: Introduction
1.1 Background information of conflicts in Africa
This paper is about the analysis of the major causes and impacts of political, economic and social conflicts in Africa and Tanzania in particular. This paper hopes to stimulate discussion on conflict issues in Africa and Tanzania in particular. The past two decades have seen violent conflicts take an increasing toll on the hopes for Africa’s development. Almost half of all African countries, and over one in three African people, are affected directly or indirectly by conflicts. Unless major progress is made to address conflict, Africa is unlikely to reach the International Development Goals by 2015 development.
CHAPTER TWO: Theoretical Review
2.1 Understanding Conflict Resolution concept
Conflict is defined as a disagreement through which the parties involved perceive a threat to their needs, interests or concerns. According to Galtung (1996) conflict could be viewed as a triangle with structure, attitude, and behavior as its vertices. By structure, he means conflict is situation, the parties, and the conflict of interest among them. Conflict arises where the parties come to have incompatible interests, values or goals. He uses the term attitudes to refer to the tendency for the parties to see conflict from their own point of view, to identify with own side, and to diminish the concerns of others. Behavior includes gestures and communications, which can convey either a hostile or a conciliatory intent (source: http://www.parlrent.cat cited 15/08/08).
Conflict in Africa has dramatically increased in level and scale throughout the 1990s. In January 2000 over half of African countries were affected. Conflict is caused by inequality, economic decline, and state collapse. The legacies of European colonialism and the Cold War have changed in nature; wars are now predominantly regional. This has resulted in increasingly affected non-combatants over the past decade as a result of increasing factional fighting and violent action against the civilian population. Also has caused as many deaths each year as are caused by epidemic diseases, and has uprooted millions of people. This also resulted in a marked reduction in food production and serious losses of infrastructure.
The resolution of conflict is essential, both to reduce human suffering, and to remove the barrier conflict imposes to economic development on the continent. The record of international peacekeeping in Africa has been weak and the international community must determine to do better. The international community is committed to play its part. But effective and enduring solutions will only come from Africa’s own commitment, with Africans leading the effort to address the causes of conflict.
2.2 Root Causes of conflict in Africa
Understanding the causes of conflicts is critical to stopping and preventing war. The causes may be complex and country specific, including long-term and short-term issues. And new factors tend to emerge during conflict (for example, grievances of those who have lost the most), adding to the initial causes. Each situation demands a detailed and specific conflict analysis. Political corruption, lack of respect for rule of law, human rights violations are all common reasons heard for some of the causes of Africa’s problems. Also countries which their economies depend on a few export commodities, conflicts happen more frequently and countries which are rich in mineral resources, such as diamonds, gold, tanzanite and oil, where greed may cause and fuel conflict last longer. But below are some of reasons discussed in details as the cause conflict in Africa:-
Inequality
Inequality between groups is probably the foremost cause of conflict in Africa. It is inequality between groups - rather than individuals - that increases the prospects of violent conflict. It exists on three mutually reinforcing levels: economic, social and political. In countries such as Liberia, Sierra Leone and Rwanda, political power and its benefits were monopolized by one group. Unequal access to power perpetuated a similar lack of access to resources and revenue. Where group inequality occurs there is also differential access to education (as has notably been the case in Burundi).This plays a key role in sustaining inequalities. Where a society is divided into two pre-dominant groups, growing inequality between them often leads to conflict.
State collapse
The collapse of state institutions has caused internal and regional conflict. Collapse is rarely sudden, but arises out of a long degenerative process that is characterized by predatory government operating through coercion, corruption and personality politics to secure political power and control of resources. The state finds unable any longer to provide basic services or security to its people and loses its legitimacy. The collapse of infrastructure completes the break up of the state. The combination of breakdown of institutions and physical infrastructure coupled with the use of ethnic violence creates the conditions in which violence becomes self-sustaining and factional warfare develops, as has happened in Liberia and Sierra Leone.
Economic decline and economic shock
Economic decline plays a major part in conflict. Economic shock is a more direct and potent cause of conflict. This can take various forms ranging from natural catastrophe to sudden large shifts in terms of trade. The Ethiopian famine of 1974 was the main factor in the overthrow of Haile Selasse’s government and the violence that ensued.
History
Many conflicts occur where there is a tradition of resolving problems by violent means. Political violence is entrenched and the instruments of the state such as the army, the police and the judiciary sustain the process. Other historical processes may provoke violence. History in places such as the DRC, Rwanda and Burundi created a state model based on the artificial creation and abuse of ethnicity to maintain power. A past pattern of conflict is one of the best predictors of future conflict. Deeply entrenched historical patterns of violence are amongst the most difficult to resolve as they require major societal and political change.
Natural resource wealth
Africa accommodates two types of resource based conflict: wars of resource scarcity and wars of abundance. The most common conflicts of scarcity relate to the control of grazing and water rights for nomadic people. Countries, whose economies are dependent on natural resources such as oil and minerals, face a very high risk of conflict. In these wars of abundance, groups compete for control of these resources, which become the “prize” for controlling the state and can lead to coups, as in Sierra Leone and the DRC. Unfair exploitation of resource rich regions can lead to secession. Abundant resources can also attract external intervention. The role of the private sector is critical in wars of abundance, as belligerents rely on its capacity to exploit and commercialize the resources. Frequently, the military have become involved in developing their own commercial companies. Such wars become self-financing, self-sustaining, and therefore less open to mediation.
Unemployment, lack of education and population pressure
Countries with high levels of unemployment among young men and where male educational levels are low face a far higher risk of conflict. Throughout Africa, factional conflict has drawn on a pool of marginalized or socially excluded young men. Increasing insecurity of land tenure in Rwanda and the high levels of rural unemployment provided a ready group of participants in the genocide there. The conflict in Liberia was fought by socially marginalized young men.
The abuse of ethnicity
Political leaders and belligerents in Africa have made increasing use of ethnic hatred. Such abuse prolongs conflict, creates long term divisions that reduce the effectiveness of peace building efforts. The war in the DRC provides a ready example of the abuse of ethnicity. Elements of the DRC government have openly provoked ethnic tensions in the Kivus with the intention of destabilizing areas under Rwandan influence. Equally elements of the Ugandan armed forces have exploited ethnic differences in order to benefit commercially from the conflict. In both instances community divisions have been deepened and there have been a greater number of fatalities and injury than are experienced in more conventional fighting.
Availability of arms
The ready availability of small arms in Africa is a major factor in sustaining and fuelling conflict. Considerable supplies of small arms are in circulation from previous wars. For example, between 1972 and 1990, Ethiopia and Somalia imported $8billion worth of small arms and light weapons. In 1992, the Angolan government distributed an estimated 700,000 rifles to the population for their defense against UNITA. Caches of arms exist throughout the continent and Africa has active trading networks that move arms between countries. However imports of arms, primarily from former Soviet Bloc countries, continue to grow and to sustain conflict. The increasing capacity within Africa to manufacture ammunition has removed yet another constraint on the use of small arms. The ready availability and relatively low cost of small arms has been coupled with the emergence of a network of both local and international dealers who trade arms for minerals or other resources. This has been a major factor in prolonging African conflicts, which have become self-sustaining conflicts and consequently less amenable to external mediation or intervention.
2.3 The impact of conflict in Africa
Refugees and internal displacement
During the last two decades, sub-Saharan Africa has been the most conflict-affected region in the world. Ten of the 24 most war-affected countries between 1980 and 1994 were African, and four of these (Liberia, Angola, Mozambique and Somalia) were ranked within the five most severely affected countries in the world. Conflict has been responsible for more death and displacement than famine or flood. The scale and nature of warfare have directly affected the lives of many millions of Africans. The main elements of this tragedy are the millions of uprooted people who have lost their homes and livelihood, the increasing numbers of direct civilian casualties and increased levels of violence, abuse and mutilation suffered by non-combatants. Internal displacement and refugee flows have a serious effect on the economy and the environment. The denial of access to the land by military factions has led displaced people to congregate in cities and surrounding areas. Uprooted populations lose access to any means of production and put enormous pressure on government services. Refugees and the internally displaced put pressure on fuel and water resources. The World Bank estimates that in Africa the total direct costs of refugees to their hosts are in the region of $530 million per year.
Child soldiers
Children have become one of the main targets of violence and in turn are being used to perpetuate it. Children are deliberately indoctrinated into a culture of violence and used as a specific instrument of war. Militia groups and irregular armed forces such as the Lord’s Resistance Army in Uganda, the Interahamwe in Rwanda / DRC, the RUF in Sierra Leone, UNITA in Angola, and formerly Renamo in Mozambique, have made a practice of forcibly recruiting children and initiating them through acts of violence against their own community. The intention is to create a fighting force that is separate, reckless towards others and has a tactical advantage over adult conventional forces. There are now approximately 350,000 child soldiers worldwide, of whom some 200,000 are in Africa.
Civilian casualties
War in Africa causes increasing suffering for civilians. They suffer death and injuries and the indirect consequences of famine and epidemic disease that have followed in the wake of war. Since 1960 over eight million people have died either directly or indirectly as a result of war in Africa, of whom five and a half million were civilians.
Violence
The most disturbing aspect of conflict in Africa is the increasing use of extreme violence, especially over the last ten years. Violence is now deliberately targeted at civilians rather than armed groups, and at entire groups rather than individuals.5 In the conflicts in Liberia, Sierra Leone, Rwanda, Mozambique, Northern Uganda, Sudan and Angola, violence has taken appalling forms.
Effects on economic
Africa’s development is threatened by conflict. Armed conflict has become one of the most important causes of poverty in Africa, leading to displacement of people, and the destruction of communities’ livelihoods. The effects of war cut across all levels of the economy down to the level of the household. War has a direct and immediate economic impact through the physical disruption it creates, denying access to land, key resources or markets. Some of the effects of conflict are less tangible. Insecurity is the least conducive climate for domestic savings and internal or external investment. Nor is the impact of war limited to the area of conflict. War damages regional infrastructure, markets and investment confidence across a wider region. The regional spread of conflict jeopardizes stable and successful countries. The World Bank estimates that conflict in Africa is causing a loss of 2% annual economic growth across the continent. Conflict in Africa has also created a substantial loss of opportunity. Lost either through the inability of states to invest in their own populations or through high military spending which has squeezed out effective investment in the economy. The continent as a whole is seen as a high risk by potential external investors because of armed conflicts.
Loss of infrastructure
War has seriously damaged Africa’s infrastructure. Roads, rail, ports, airports, electricity, water supply, sewers and telecommunications have all been affected. During war there has been a dearth of investment in and maintenance of infrastructure. Over the past twenty years Africa has lost over fifty per cent of its transport infrastructure, many of the losses due to conflict. This loss has both an immediate and a long-term impact on African economies. In immediate terms, it increases impoverishment. For example, South Sudan has almost no viable road network as a result of years of civil war. This severely harms the livelihood of the population, who are dependent on trading cattle for cereals as their means of survival. Countries such as Angola and DRC are now totally dependent on air transport because of the collapse of infrastructure and insecurity. Countries affected by war also suffer from weak, fragmented and highly unstable markets. This in turn contributes to another characteristic of war-affected economies: hyperinflation and a volatile currency.
National impact on production and livelihoods
In the majority of African economies the most direct impact of war is on production and household livelihoods. War can deny people access to their land at critical growing or planting periods, increase the costs of agricultural inputs, disrupt markets and restrict sales of produce. The use of landmines for example, in countries like Angola has severely limited access to land for the long term. Agricultural production and family livelihoods have suffered dramatically as a result.
CHAPTER THREE: Empirical review
3.1 Overview of conflict in Tanzania
Tanzania is a country which is considered to be peacefully and stable country in Africa. The country is known to be an “oasis of peace” (Hofmeier 1997) on the troubled African continent. Although the country is among the few African states that have experienced a “classical” war – a war between two independent states (Matthies 1998) – the East African country can look back on 40 years of relative internal peace and stability. No civil wars, no military coups, no state-collapse, no warlords, neither ethnic nor religious, neither political nor social clashes have tormented the country and its people. However, when looking the definition of conflict one is obliged to say, Tanzania has never been a country without conflicts. As in any society, conflict between different interests, identities, opinions and demands occurred. They were fought out along the lines of ethnic and regional affiliation, religion and ideology, gender and generation, and many others. Conflicts in Tanzania are caused by poverty which result to big gap between rich and poor, poor policy formulation and implementation, poor governance, misuse of resources, unequal distribution of resources and culture and belief differences.
Most of time Tanzania experiences conflict between Farmers and Pastoralists (example Wachoka and Wancholi in mara region, Wakwavi and Masai in Kilosa District in Morogoro region, ), Employees and Employers (example Tanzania Railway Limited), Small business men(Machinga) and Government in Kariakoo market in Dar es salaam, residents along road side and Government in case of expansion of roads example Kurasini road in Dar es salaam, land residence conflict between community and government (example Tabata residence in Dar es salaam and government), investors and villagers example Buhemba, Merelani, Bulialikulu, Mwadui mining Co, political parties example CCM and CUF during national election, University students and University management or loan board in the issue of students rights and privileges. Religious concflic eg KKKT, Christians and muslims, National parks and community around national parks eg Loliondo in Arusha.
3.2 Causes of conflict in Tanzania
When looking Tanzania since independence 1961, one is obliged to observe that, violent conflict has increased this is due to changed modes of interaction between state and society and within the society. These changes were the –quite intended-results of the manifold reforms, which Tanzania undergoes since the mid-1980s. For these reasons the root cause of conflict in Tanzania can be classified as political, religious, economic and social patterns which are discussed below as follows:
Governance and Policy
It has been contented that one of the major causes of conflict and insecurity in Tanzania is poor policy formulated by the government that are not well researched and difficulty to implement. There has been top down approach without community involvement. The notable big matter was that of villagelization which most of the community members in a certain areas were displaced. Tanzanians have witnessed political parties’ conflict in the country due to elections from the time of single party to Mult-party. This is due to lack of free and fair election. For instance, Zanzibar issue is a sign of conflict in Tanzania since many years due to nation election between CCM and CUF, and the recent one on whether Zanzibar is a country or not is becoming up very hot. Poor governance in the country led to corruption within the government officials. There has been cry for long time on the corruption which has increased hardship to the citzens for instance the Richmond, EPA, Buswagi and Kiwila coal mining.
Culture, poverty and political isolation
Tribal cultures have come into contact with other cultures, and have slowly evolved to accommodate the impact of such contacts, shedding some of their more foreboding characteristics. For instance, the conflict that revolves around cattle rearing areas with farmers, a good example is the conflict in Mara region between Wanyanchoka and Wanchari and, Wakwavi and Masai in Kilosa District in Morogoro region.
Religious
There have been religious conflict especially between Muslims and Christian from the side of education and to the way people worships. On the side of education, the government privatized government schools as it said it was due to the limited financial resources hence poor educational sector has been put into private hands. When looking the education sector, the Christian churches become active and provided good education, although these schools are usually open for non-Christians too, the Muslim community mostly depends on low standard schools. Thus the already existing educational gap between Muslims and Christians is reinforced (although now days there are few Muslim schools). This dissimilarity in education is translated into competitive disadvantages of Muslims in their efforts to find a good job especially in the government sector, and it results in a perception that government favors Christians. On the other hand, Muslims are not happy to see pork butchery near their place of residents or near to mosque. But also there are conflicts between Christians and Christians or Muslims and Muslims, for example the Mwanga and Arumeru saga which is a conflict between Christians of Lutheran church and others that are emerging day to day. Economic reform introduced private ownership, competition and exclusion into society which is characterized by ideals of state control, unity and inclusion. With the current system which was not used to the citizens, has brought many conflict of interest as there are few benefits from the system and many do suffer.
3.3 Impact of conflict in Tanzania
The conflict in Tanzania has its consequences to the people of Tanzania. The people, societies and economies of Tanzania, has suffered from the economic, environmental and social consequences of conflict. Notable among these are the following negative impact:
Corruptions in the country have reached a point where it brings havoc to the citizen and has been a big factor for conflict in the country between the government and its citizens. Most of the leaders are not bide to the rule of the law hence bring conflict. This can be elaborated by the Richmond issue.
Fighting with poverty in the country has been slow, because of corruption, poor policies and poor governance. For example, most people in Dar es Salaam are living in poor conditions and temporary shelter of squatter/slum areas which is about 60% of Dar es Salaam urban dwellers are to be found in these settlements.Increase of diseases such as HIV/AIDS which is believed emerged from Uganda after the Idd Amin war.Due to free markets in Tanzania, the income gap between the rich and the poor is very wide. This is a time bomb. As a result there have been robbery and people are not at peace.
Environment degradation has increased due to conflict of interest between people, government and private investors on side of mines, forestry, water source and lives stock keepers.
Poor social services- this is mainly caused by corruption in the country. Some of the social services are not provided to the required standards.Drug trafficking has increased and the young people are using them as a way of getting relief from the life hardship increase of orphans and widow due to HIV/AIDS.
CHAPTER FOUR: Conclusion
This paper examines the causes and consequences of conflict in Africa. There is of course no single correct view of the causes of conflict, in Africa or elsewhere. Each conflict has its own unique set of circumstances and causes. But there are patterns of conflict in different regions and historical eras. The challenge is to improve our understanding and to translate this into more effective action to prevent and reduce conflict.
The resolution of conflict is essential, both to reduce human suffering, and to remove the barrier conflict imposes to economic development on the continent. The record of international peacekeeping in Africa has been weak and the international community must determine to do better. The political will and strong international support is required so that internal conflicts can be resolved and sustainable peace restored. Therefore, African leaders and the international community, including the World Bank, must recognize the magnitude of the challenge. But for effective and enduring solutions will only come from Africa’s own commitment, with Africans leading the effort to address the causes of conflict.
This paper concludes that it is important that all stakeholders in conflict prevention, resolution and post-conflict reconstruction work closely together. If we can do this both at a national level and internationally there is a better chance that Africa will be able to take advantage of the benefits of globalization and, that we can achieve the International Development Target of a 50 per cent reduction in the proportion of people living in poverty by 2015.
1.1 Background information of conflicts in Africa
This paper is about the analysis of the major causes and impacts of political, economic and social conflicts in Africa and Tanzania in particular. This paper hopes to stimulate discussion on conflict issues in Africa and Tanzania in particular. The past two decades have seen violent conflicts take an increasing toll on the hopes for Africa’s development. Almost half of all African countries, and over one in three African people, are affected directly or indirectly by conflicts. Unless major progress is made to address conflict, Africa is unlikely to reach the International Development Goals by 2015 development.
CHAPTER TWO: Theoretical Review
2.1 Understanding Conflict Resolution concept
Conflict is defined as a disagreement through which the parties involved perceive a threat to their needs, interests or concerns. According to Galtung (1996) conflict could be viewed as a triangle with structure, attitude, and behavior as its vertices. By structure, he means conflict is situation, the parties, and the conflict of interest among them. Conflict arises where the parties come to have incompatible interests, values or goals. He uses the term attitudes to refer to the tendency for the parties to see conflict from their own point of view, to identify with own side, and to diminish the concerns of others. Behavior includes gestures and communications, which can convey either a hostile or a conciliatory intent (source: http://www.parlrent.cat cited 15/08/08).
Conflict in Africa has dramatically increased in level and scale throughout the 1990s. In January 2000 over half of African countries were affected. Conflict is caused by inequality, economic decline, and state collapse. The legacies of European colonialism and the Cold War have changed in nature; wars are now predominantly regional. This has resulted in increasingly affected non-combatants over the past decade as a result of increasing factional fighting and violent action against the civilian population. Also has caused as many deaths each year as are caused by epidemic diseases, and has uprooted millions of people. This also resulted in a marked reduction in food production and serious losses of infrastructure.
The resolution of conflict is essential, both to reduce human suffering, and to remove the barrier conflict imposes to economic development on the continent. The record of international peacekeeping in Africa has been weak and the international community must determine to do better. The international community is committed to play its part. But effective and enduring solutions will only come from Africa’s own commitment, with Africans leading the effort to address the causes of conflict.
2.2 Root Causes of conflict in Africa
Understanding the causes of conflicts is critical to stopping and preventing war. The causes may be complex and country specific, including long-term and short-term issues. And new factors tend to emerge during conflict (for example, grievances of those who have lost the most), adding to the initial causes. Each situation demands a detailed and specific conflict analysis. Political corruption, lack of respect for rule of law, human rights violations are all common reasons heard for some of the causes of Africa’s problems. Also countries which their economies depend on a few export commodities, conflicts happen more frequently and countries which are rich in mineral resources, such as diamonds, gold, tanzanite and oil, where greed may cause and fuel conflict last longer. But below are some of reasons discussed in details as the cause conflict in Africa:-
Inequality
Inequality between groups is probably the foremost cause of conflict in Africa. It is inequality between groups - rather than individuals - that increases the prospects of violent conflict. It exists on three mutually reinforcing levels: economic, social and political. In countries such as Liberia, Sierra Leone and Rwanda, political power and its benefits were monopolized by one group. Unequal access to power perpetuated a similar lack of access to resources and revenue. Where group inequality occurs there is also differential access to education (as has notably been the case in Burundi).This plays a key role in sustaining inequalities. Where a society is divided into two pre-dominant groups, growing inequality between them often leads to conflict.
State collapse
The collapse of state institutions has caused internal and regional conflict. Collapse is rarely sudden, but arises out of a long degenerative process that is characterized by predatory government operating through coercion, corruption and personality politics to secure political power and control of resources. The state finds unable any longer to provide basic services or security to its people and loses its legitimacy. The collapse of infrastructure completes the break up of the state. The combination of breakdown of institutions and physical infrastructure coupled with the use of ethnic violence creates the conditions in which violence becomes self-sustaining and factional warfare develops, as has happened in Liberia and Sierra Leone.
Economic decline and economic shock
Economic decline plays a major part in conflict. Economic shock is a more direct and potent cause of conflict. This can take various forms ranging from natural catastrophe to sudden large shifts in terms of trade. The Ethiopian famine of 1974 was the main factor in the overthrow of Haile Selasse’s government and the violence that ensued.
History
Many conflicts occur where there is a tradition of resolving problems by violent means. Political violence is entrenched and the instruments of the state such as the army, the police and the judiciary sustain the process. Other historical processes may provoke violence. History in places such as the DRC, Rwanda and Burundi created a state model based on the artificial creation and abuse of ethnicity to maintain power. A past pattern of conflict is one of the best predictors of future conflict. Deeply entrenched historical patterns of violence are amongst the most difficult to resolve as they require major societal and political change.
Natural resource wealth
Africa accommodates two types of resource based conflict: wars of resource scarcity and wars of abundance. The most common conflicts of scarcity relate to the control of grazing and water rights for nomadic people. Countries, whose economies are dependent on natural resources such as oil and minerals, face a very high risk of conflict. In these wars of abundance, groups compete for control of these resources, which become the “prize” for controlling the state and can lead to coups, as in Sierra Leone and the DRC. Unfair exploitation of resource rich regions can lead to secession. Abundant resources can also attract external intervention. The role of the private sector is critical in wars of abundance, as belligerents rely on its capacity to exploit and commercialize the resources. Frequently, the military have become involved in developing their own commercial companies. Such wars become self-financing, self-sustaining, and therefore less open to mediation.
Unemployment, lack of education and population pressure
Countries with high levels of unemployment among young men and where male educational levels are low face a far higher risk of conflict. Throughout Africa, factional conflict has drawn on a pool of marginalized or socially excluded young men. Increasing insecurity of land tenure in Rwanda and the high levels of rural unemployment provided a ready group of participants in the genocide there. The conflict in Liberia was fought by socially marginalized young men.
The abuse of ethnicity
Political leaders and belligerents in Africa have made increasing use of ethnic hatred. Such abuse prolongs conflict, creates long term divisions that reduce the effectiveness of peace building efforts. The war in the DRC provides a ready example of the abuse of ethnicity. Elements of the DRC government have openly provoked ethnic tensions in the Kivus with the intention of destabilizing areas under Rwandan influence. Equally elements of the Ugandan armed forces have exploited ethnic differences in order to benefit commercially from the conflict. In both instances community divisions have been deepened and there have been a greater number of fatalities and injury than are experienced in more conventional fighting.
Availability of arms
The ready availability of small arms in Africa is a major factor in sustaining and fuelling conflict. Considerable supplies of small arms are in circulation from previous wars. For example, between 1972 and 1990, Ethiopia and Somalia imported $8billion worth of small arms and light weapons. In 1992, the Angolan government distributed an estimated 700,000 rifles to the population for their defense against UNITA. Caches of arms exist throughout the continent and Africa has active trading networks that move arms between countries. However imports of arms, primarily from former Soviet Bloc countries, continue to grow and to sustain conflict. The increasing capacity within Africa to manufacture ammunition has removed yet another constraint on the use of small arms. The ready availability and relatively low cost of small arms has been coupled with the emergence of a network of both local and international dealers who trade arms for minerals or other resources. This has been a major factor in prolonging African conflicts, which have become self-sustaining conflicts and consequently less amenable to external mediation or intervention.
2.3 The impact of conflict in Africa
Refugees and internal displacement
During the last two decades, sub-Saharan Africa has been the most conflict-affected region in the world. Ten of the 24 most war-affected countries between 1980 and 1994 were African, and four of these (Liberia, Angola, Mozambique and Somalia) were ranked within the five most severely affected countries in the world. Conflict has been responsible for more death and displacement than famine or flood. The scale and nature of warfare have directly affected the lives of many millions of Africans. The main elements of this tragedy are the millions of uprooted people who have lost their homes and livelihood, the increasing numbers of direct civilian casualties and increased levels of violence, abuse and mutilation suffered by non-combatants. Internal displacement and refugee flows have a serious effect on the economy and the environment. The denial of access to the land by military factions has led displaced people to congregate in cities and surrounding areas. Uprooted populations lose access to any means of production and put enormous pressure on government services. Refugees and the internally displaced put pressure on fuel and water resources. The World Bank estimates that in Africa the total direct costs of refugees to their hosts are in the region of $530 million per year.
Child soldiers
Children have become one of the main targets of violence and in turn are being used to perpetuate it. Children are deliberately indoctrinated into a culture of violence and used as a specific instrument of war. Militia groups and irregular armed forces such as the Lord’s Resistance Army in Uganda, the Interahamwe in Rwanda / DRC, the RUF in Sierra Leone, UNITA in Angola, and formerly Renamo in Mozambique, have made a practice of forcibly recruiting children and initiating them through acts of violence against their own community. The intention is to create a fighting force that is separate, reckless towards others and has a tactical advantage over adult conventional forces. There are now approximately 350,000 child soldiers worldwide, of whom some 200,000 are in Africa.
Civilian casualties
War in Africa causes increasing suffering for civilians. They suffer death and injuries and the indirect consequences of famine and epidemic disease that have followed in the wake of war. Since 1960 over eight million people have died either directly or indirectly as a result of war in Africa, of whom five and a half million were civilians.
Violence
The most disturbing aspect of conflict in Africa is the increasing use of extreme violence, especially over the last ten years. Violence is now deliberately targeted at civilians rather than armed groups, and at entire groups rather than individuals.5 In the conflicts in Liberia, Sierra Leone, Rwanda, Mozambique, Northern Uganda, Sudan and Angola, violence has taken appalling forms.
Effects on economic
Africa’s development is threatened by conflict. Armed conflict has become one of the most important causes of poverty in Africa, leading to displacement of people, and the destruction of communities’ livelihoods. The effects of war cut across all levels of the economy down to the level of the household. War has a direct and immediate economic impact through the physical disruption it creates, denying access to land, key resources or markets. Some of the effects of conflict are less tangible. Insecurity is the least conducive climate for domestic savings and internal or external investment. Nor is the impact of war limited to the area of conflict. War damages regional infrastructure, markets and investment confidence across a wider region. The regional spread of conflict jeopardizes stable and successful countries. The World Bank estimates that conflict in Africa is causing a loss of 2% annual economic growth across the continent. Conflict in Africa has also created a substantial loss of opportunity. Lost either through the inability of states to invest in their own populations or through high military spending which has squeezed out effective investment in the economy. The continent as a whole is seen as a high risk by potential external investors because of armed conflicts.
Loss of infrastructure
War has seriously damaged Africa’s infrastructure. Roads, rail, ports, airports, electricity, water supply, sewers and telecommunications have all been affected. During war there has been a dearth of investment in and maintenance of infrastructure. Over the past twenty years Africa has lost over fifty per cent of its transport infrastructure, many of the losses due to conflict. This loss has both an immediate and a long-term impact on African economies. In immediate terms, it increases impoverishment. For example, South Sudan has almost no viable road network as a result of years of civil war. This severely harms the livelihood of the population, who are dependent on trading cattle for cereals as their means of survival. Countries such as Angola and DRC are now totally dependent on air transport because of the collapse of infrastructure and insecurity. Countries affected by war also suffer from weak, fragmented and highly unstable markets. This in turn contributes to another characteristic of war-affected economies: hyperinflation and a volatile currency.
National impact on production and livelihoods
In the majority of African economies the most direct impact of war is on production and household livelihoods. War can deny people access to their land at critical growing or planting periods, increase the costs of agricultural inputs, disrupt markets and restrict sales of produce. The use of landmines for example, in countries like Angola has severely limited access to land for the long term. Agricultural production and family livelihoods have suffered dramatically as a result.
CHAPTER THREE: Empirical review
3.1 Overview of conflict in Tanzania
Tanzania is a country which is considered to be peacefully and stable country in Africa. The country is known to be an “oasis of peace” (Hofmeier 1997) on the troubled African continent. Although the country is among the few African states that have experienced a “classical” war – a war between two independent states (Matthies 1998) – the East African country can look back on 40 years of relative internal peace and stability. No civil wars, no military coups, no state-collapse, no warlords, neither ethnic nor religious, neither political nor social clashes have tormented the country and its people. However, when looking the definition of conflict one is obliged to say, Tanzania has never been a country without conflicts. As in any society, conflict between different interests, identities, opinions and demands occurred. They were fought out along the lines of ethnic and regional affiliation, religion and ideology, gender and generation, and many others. Conflicts in Tanzania are caused by poverty which result to big gap between rich and poor, poor policy formulation and implementation, poor governance, misuse of resources, unequal distribution of resources and culture and belief differences.
Most of time Tanzania experiences conflict between Farmers and Pastoralists (example Wachoka and Wancholi in mara region, Wakwavi and Masai in Kilosa District in Morogoro region, ), Employees and Employers (example Tanzania Railway Limited), Small business men(Machinga) and Government in Kariakoo market in Dar es salaam, residents along road side and Government in case of expansion of roads example Kurasini road in Dar es salaam, land residence conflict between community and government (example Tabata residence in Dar es salaam and government), investors and villagers example Buhemba, Merelani, Bulialikulu, Mwadui mining Co, political parties example CCM and CUF during national election, University students and University management or loan board in the issue of students rights and privileges. Religious concflic eg KKKT, Christians and muslims, National parks and community around national parks eg Loliondo in Arusha.
3.2 Causes of conflict in Tanzania
When looking Tanzania since independence 1961, one is obliged to observe that, violent conflict has increased this is due to changed modes of interaction between state and society and within the society. These changes were the –quite intended-results of the manifold reforms, which Tanzania undergoes since the mid-1980s. For these reasons the root cause of conflict in Tanzania can be classified as political, religious, economic and social patterns which are discussed below as follows:
Governance and Policy
It has been contented that one of the major causes of conflict and insecurity in Tanzania is poor policy formulated by the government that are not well researched and difficulty to implement. There has been top down approach without community involvement. The notable big matter was that of villagelization which most of the community members in a certain areas were displaced. Tanzanians have witnessed political parties’ conflict in the country due to elections from the time of single party to Mult-party. This is due to lack of free and fair election. For instance, Zanzibar issue is a sign of conflict in Tanzania since many years due to nation election between CCM and CUF, and the recent one on whether Zanzibar is a country or not is becoming up very hot. Poor governance in the country led to corruption within the government officials. There has been cry for long time on the corruption which has increased hardship to the citzens for instance the Richmond, EPA, Buswagi and Kiwila coal mining.
Culture, poverty and political isolation
Tribal cultures have come into contact with other cultures, and have slowly evolved to accommodate the impact of such contacts, shedding some of their more foreboding characteristics. For instance, the conflict that revolves around cattle rearing areas with farmers, a good example is the conflict in Mara region between Wanyanchoka and Wanchari and, Wakwavi and Masai in Kilosa District in Morogoro region.
Religious
There have been religious conflict especially between Muslims and Christian from the side of education and to the way people worships. On the side of education, the government privatized government schools as it said it was due to the limited financial resources hence poor educational sector has been put into private hands. When looking the education sector, the Christian churches become active and provided good education, although these schools are usually open for non-Christians too, the Muslim community mostly depends on low standard schools. Thus the already existing educational gap between Muslims and Christians is reinforced (although now days there are few Muslim schools). This dissimilarity in education is translated into competitive disadvantages of Muslims in their efforts to find a good job especially in the government sector, and it results in a perception that government favors Christians. On the other hand, Muslims are not happy to see pork butchery near their place of residents or near to mosque. But also there are conflicts between Christians and Christians or Muslims and Muslims, for example the Mwanga and Arumeru saga which is a conflict between Christians of Lutheran church and others that are emerging day to day. Economic reform introduced private ownership, competition and exclusion into society which is characterized by ideals of state control, unity and inclusion. With the current system which was not used to the citizens, has brought many conflict of interest as there are few benefits from the system and many do suffer.
3.3 Impact of conflict in Tanzania
The conflict in Tanzania has its consequences to the people of Tanzania. The people, societies and economies of Tanzania, has suffered from the economic, environmental and social consequences of conflict. Notable among these are the following negative impact:
Corruptions in the country have reached a point where it brings havoc to the citizen and has been a big factor for conflict in the country between the government and its citizens. Most of the leaders are not bide to the rule of the law hence bring conflict. This can be elaborated by the Richmond issue.
Fighting with poverty in the country has been slow, because of corruption, poor policies and poor governance. For example, most people in Dar es Salaam are living in poor conditions and temporary shelter of squatter/slum areas which is about 60% of Dar es Salaam urban dwellers are to be found in these settlements.Increase of diseases such as HIV/AIDS which is believed emerged from Uganda after the Idd Amin war.Due to free markets in Tanzania, the income gap between the rich and the poor is very wide. This is a time bomb. As a result there have been robbery and people are not at peace.
Environment degradation has increased due to conflict of interest between people, government and private investors on side of mines, forestry, water source and lives stock keepers.
Poor social services- this is mainly caused by corruption in the country. Some of the social services are not provided to the required standards.Drug trafficking has increased and the young people are using them as a way of getting relief from the life hardship increase of orphans and widow due to HIV/AIDS.
CHAPTER FOUR: Conclusion
This paper examines the causes and consequences of conflict in Africa. There is of course no single correct view of the causes of conflict, in Africa or elsewhere. Each conflict has its own unique set of circumstances and causes. But there are patterns of conflict in different regions and historical eras. The challenge is to improve our understanding and to translate this into more effective action to prevent and reduce conflict.
The resolution of conflict is essential, both to reduce human suffering, and to remove the barrier conflict imposes to economic development on the continent. The record of international peacekeeping in Africa has been weak and the international community must determine to do better. The political will and strong international support is required so that internal conflicts can be resolved and sustainable peace restored. Therefore, African leaders and the international community, including the World Bank, must recognize the magnitude of the challenge. But for effective and enduring solutions will only come from Africa’s own commitment, with Africans leading the effort to address the causes of conflict.
This paper concludes that it is important that all stakeholders in conflict prevention, resolution and post-conflict reconstruction work closely together. If we can do this both at a national level and internationally there is a better chance that Africa will be able to take advantage of the benefits of globalization and, that we can achieve the International Development Target of a 50 per cent reduction in the proportion of people living in poverty by 2015.
A paper on the Globalization: Development Challenges
CHAPTER ONE: Introduction
This paper will introduce the concept of globalization and its impact on development of third world countries and the world in general. It will take us through faces of globalization and Tanzania is a case study. The paper will cover five parts:- Introduction, Theories related to globalization (literature review), Analysis of globalization outstanding issues(findings), Possible criticisms and recommendations(discussion) and Conclusion. To start with let us know the meaning of Globalization which can be described as a process by which the people of the world are unified into a single society. This process is a combination of economic, technological, socio-cultural, environmental and political forces. It has become increasingly fashionable to use the term globalization as a description of the international economy and international political relations. Global culture and economic changes is always complex and multidimensional which brings benefits and burdens the world. The benefits and burdens of global culture and economic changes are not distributed evenly among people. It is clear that globalization of the past shapes globalization of the present. Globalization today is characterized by a dramatic increase in and acceleration of earlier kinds of connections. Today, Globalization is about the liberalization and global integration of markets, which involves flow of people, capital, technology, culture, information and ideologies.
CHAPTER TWO: Theory related to outstanding issues on globalization
2.1 The concept of globalization
Globalization can be defined as the diffusion of ideas, practices and technologies in a seamless way throughout the world. Globalization is the intensification of worldwide social relations which link distant localities in such a way that local happenings are shaped by events occurring many miles away (Giddens, 1990)
Globalisation is a complex process at present time which requires careful analysis and follows up. It is a process of inclusion as well as exclusion because it demands that people sacrifice or do way with some separatist tendencies in order to be part and parcel of the global economy and a global culture. Globalisation requires the opening up of boundaries and borders and the exposition of the world’s resources for the common good. It actually assumes that leaving everything functions according to the laws of the market is one of the best ways to ensure proper development (Mwingira, 1998).
Goods and services can freely be sold across the borders and the distance between North and South, East and West is steadily diminishing. However, globalization also confronts us with new problems. The economic forces are becoming more and more intractable, weak group are being marginalised, inequality is increasing, financial crises are being exacerbated, the cultural identity is being re-shaped, community and family ties are being broken down and global crime is on the increase (MS, 2000).Globalisation creates wealth for some and leads to poverty and marginalisation for others. The situation must be reversed and the economic wealth that accompanies the global market must be used to eliminate poverty and hunger, ensure education and health for everybody, and solve the environment problems. We must recognize that globalisation contains a danger increasing even further the gap between those who have access to education and new information technology and all those who do not (MS, 2000).
Globalization is offering the poorest countries new ways of fighting poverty. Development organizations and donor – countries are now sending in the information – and communication technology in order to get rid of poverty. Computers, internet connections and mobile phones are supposed to be in the forefront of the new battle. Tele –and communication centers are being put up in a lot of the big cities in the developing countries, but the rural areas also have to be covered. The basic idea is that internet connections are central development tools (Bech, 2004).
Globalization is not only about communication, though, traveling by plane you can cross continents in a few hours and go from one part of the world to the other in a day. It’s also getting the possibility of tasting food from other cultures and its increased trade between the continents. But so far all this is still only possible to a limited number of people in Tanzania! The people in favor of globalization are seeing the ‘global village’ as a way of eradicating poverty and creating more equality. And the skeptical ones see globalization as a new evil-benefiting the rich and leaving the poor even further behind. The ‘global village’ is both a great opportunity and a possible catastrophe if not handled properly (Bech, 2004)
The process which is characterized by neo-liberal ideologies of the market economy mainly initiated by global political and economic elites has transformed the social economic structure of states in such a manner that there is now an apparent and clear growing gap between the rich and poor. A sense of powerlessness is growing which can lead to a state of depair. A new “African Renaisance” it is on the other hand being perceived without however much being seen on the ground. The transformation of people’s life and the economy for countries like our own is still a change. The CBOs/NGOs in struggle to eradicate poverty cannot afford to ignore the globalization process with its positive and negative consequences on our people. If so, we run the risks of playing match whose net results will be negative hence the failure to meet our development objectives. The challenges for CBOs/NGOs are to look for ways to cope with the process and be alert to find out how the balance between free systems and deregulations and the protection of national identity and priorities for development can be maintained. The need for participatory process and the instance that the voices of the poor also are taken into account is necessary. Otherwise the poor, especially those of Africa will only be objects of globalisation process and not subjects. CBOs/NGOs being and working very close to the people have also a duty to create more awareness to the communities ahead the global trends and prepare them. CBOs/NGOs are called to ensure that people make informed choices about the policies and programmes introduced to them under the cover of poverty eradication so that they can also gain and not end up losing even the little they have like the right to ownership of land and the right of decisions about how to organise their own lives (Mwingira, 1998)
2.2 Globalisation by people
Globalisation by people is where people and communities are placed at the centre of the process of development, rather than being marginalised as it is often the case with the type of neo-liberal globalisation dominating today. People and communities need to be protected through the enforcement of globally binding rules. There is an increasing lack of democratic culture and practice in global decision-making process. Trans-national corporations have more power and influence than many countries. International cooperation is more often than not dominated by the interests of the powerful industrialised nations. It is necessary to balance the freedom enjoyed by the few with global rules that protect the many. Since environment and development is totally intertwined in both the global and the local context, therefore, globalisation must contribute to better living conditions and a better environment for all people. Also it should be known that, wealth and consumption patterns by rich people have negative impact on the poor, and the environmental problems faced by poor can eventually lead to instability and insecurity in other parts of the world. The focus of global negotiations have increasingly turned to the global environmental problems that have a potential impact on the rich countries, such as ozone depletion and climate change, rather than to the environmental problems that have an immediate and serious effect on the poor countries , such as lack of clean drinking water, indoor air pollution and desertification (Bech, 2004).
2.3 Tanzania in the globalization
Global Tanzania’ is not doing well. Tanzanians are not part of the global rush and rural people in the country have probably never heard about the ‘global village’ they are supposed to be living in. Some people are even calling globalization a new kind of colonialism.
Global trade is not really going Tanzania ‘s way, the internet is only used by very few people, traveling by plane is only an option for a limited crowd of rich residents and most educated Tanzanians will leave the country to work abroad if they get the chance.
We cannot wish globalization away! The fast-moving, communicative and consuming monster is here to stay. Africa and Tanzania must act –and act fast to be part of the process and to gain from the new era. More trade inside Africa is needed. But Tanzania must also fight to remove the agricultural subsidies in the developed world. Movements from the rich part of the world is already fighting alongside the Third World trying to change the fact that ‘a cow from the North is receiving 100 times as much financial support as a farmer from south’-as one slogan reads. Tanzania must also have the courage to change its national policies. A better investment climate is needed, more planning ahead is essential and a serious crack-down on the destructive corruption on all levels of society are the keys to bring back trust in Tanzania economy (Bech, 2004).
CHAPTER THREE: Analysis of globalization outstanding issues
Heshmati (2004) finds that globalization reduces poverty among the poor people and women in rural. Also finds that globalization reduces inequality by increasing the income or consumption of the poorest 20%. Globalization can reduce poverty because it acts as a filter that magnifies the impact that institutions and policies have on the poor (Heshmati, 2004). The outcome of globalization for the poor depends on the quality of economic institutions and policies (Bardhan, 2004a). Therefore, if a country has sound policies institutions, globalization can positively affect the poor. The effects of globalization are difficult to isolate from other effects that have had significant impact on the poor. However, some great effects of globalization are as follows:-
• There is a capital savings and technology change
• There is a labor savings in developing countries which increases marginal productivity to unskilled labor
• There is a sector creation that provide jobs for the poor
• There are potentially lower tariff rates which can have an extremely positive pro-poor impact
• Globalization promotes free trade and ultimately benefits everyone because free trade opens access to goods, services, capital, people, information, and technology,
• It provides countries with their best opportunity to advance
• Money comes easily, money goes easily.
• Corporate networks more easily established, illicit and terrorist networks more easily established.
• Computers and programmers move more easily, weapons and sex traffickers move more easily.
• New medical technologies spread more easily.
• There is availability of items in market
• The government receive tax form private business to run the government
• There is an increase in investments
• Choice of varieties is high
• There is an increase of entrepreneurs
• Goods and services are drawn more and more into the market
• There is a perfect information in the market
• Resources are mobilized and allocated in most efficient and cost effective manner
However, Croucher, S (2004) in her book says that globalization has various aspects which affect the world in several different ways such as:
Industrial (alias trans nationalization) - emergence of worldwide production markets and broader access to a range of foreign.
Financial - emergence of worldwide financial markets and better access to external financing for corporate, national and sub national borrowers give opportunity for poor especially women to access credits and other funded projects.
Economic - realization of a global common market, based on the freedom of exchange of goods and capital. Globalization, when considered in a sociological context, has increased economic inequality throughout the world. In global world there is an increasing economic interconnectivity which experience:-
v International division of labor
v Rapidly expanding volume of capital flows
v Capital remains concentrated among the wealthiest nations
Political - political globalization is the creation of a world government which regulates the relationships among nations and guarantees the rights arising from social and economic globalization.
Informational - increase in information flows between geographically remote locations, whereby poor people and women are living.
Cultural - growth of cross-cultural contacts; advent of new categories of consciousness and identities such as Globalism - which embodies cultural diffusion, the desire to consume and enjoy foreign products and ideas, adopt new technology and practices, and participate in a "world culture" Ecological- the advent of global environmental challenges that cannot be solved without international cooperation, such as climate change, cross-boundary water and air pollution, over-fishing of the ocean, and the spread of invasive species. Many factories are built in developing countries where they can pollute freely. Social - the achievement of free circulation by people of all nations.
Chapter Four: Criticisms and recommendations
4.1 Criticisms on globalization
Although, globalization is doing well in the modern world system, the following are criticisms of globalization:-
• Economic globalization is associated with increasing disparities in wealth and power both between nations and between different groups within nations and between public and private sectors
• Poorer people are at disadvantage: While it is true that Globalization encourages free trade among countries on an international level, there are also negative consequences. The main export of poorer people is usually an agricultural good. It is difficult for these people in developing countries to compete with stronger countries that subsidize their own farmers. Because the farmers in the poorer countries cannot compete, they are forced to sell their crops at much lower price than what the market is paying.
• It is difficult for developing countries to compete with stronger countries that provide bigger subsidy to their own farmers. Because the farmers in poor countries can not compete, they are forced to sell their crops at much lower price than what the market is paying.
• With globalization, traditional agricultural exports have gone down due to stiff competition in the world market.
• Extreme volatility for primary commodities, which is bad for the farmers that produce primary commodities, but is mixed for the poor who consume primary commodities because their prices, although volatile, are less expensive;
• Volatility of income, prices, or output in the short-run, which is bad for the poor, unless policies and institutions are implemented that to enhance macroeconomic stability;
• Culture, identity, and tradition are disrupted and reworked. As a result of these global flows, new ways of living and new forms of culture are created :( hybrid cultural forms). Therefore there is a decline of moral responsibility due to free entry of western culture and traditions
• In political terms, globalization has reduced the ability of governments to manage their national economies.
• Most of he developing nations including Tanzania, have been so much dependent on financial support from developed Nations; which can result in making unimplementable national budgets/plans/policies.
• Developing nations have in most cases implementing decisions made by WB and IMF; which in most cases have not been favoring their own national policies.
• With globalization, the developing nations like Tanzania have been experiencing importation of fake and poor goods from other countries.
• Globalization results in unemployment to most of the citizens. The Tanzanian population for instance can not compete in the world market on employment aspect due to the unconvincing educational background undergone in the previous years.
• There is outflow of capital for example mines industry
• In some of activities human capital replaced by machinery and computer technology
4.2 Recommendation on globalization
Though globalization has brought many positive things in human development, it has to do much for pro-poor especially women. Globalization need to address development issues pro-actively through policy dialogue, consultative processes, data analysis, and the full range of operational instruments. This is primarily the job of government, but has to be helped and supported by donors and research/training institutions.
Governments, donors, and the World Bank are urged to take action to address globalization challenges in the context of adjustment and to internalize the recommendations and thinking within their own institutions and programs.
Open up economic decision making bodies like the WTO and the IMF to the people; make them as democratic and transparent as possible and require them to achieve equitable human development and environmental goals; require trade agreements to show their positive impacts on humans and the environment before finalizing them.
Transform the productive monetized economy to enable people’s roles in the reproductive or social economy to be respected, so that we can all live more balanced lives.
Equalize political decision making at all levels.
Mean while alternatives suggested for pro-poor, safety nets, such as education, health, and welfare reform, should be provided for the poor during trade and financial liberalization. These institutions create an opportunity for those who are living in extreme poverty to learn skills that will increase their marginal productivity, and therefore their wage. The redistribution of wealth, such as asset ownership for the poor, targeted lending, progressive taxes, and consumer subsidies, is also considered a safety net that can be used during crises or volatile times to help protect the poor from the cruelty of extreme poverty. In order to realize true development in this global world, therefore:-
Education should be treated as a strategic agent for mind set transformation and creation of a well educated nation sufficiently equipped with the knowledge to completely and competitively solves development challenges which face the nation. In this right the education system should be restructured and transformed qualitatively with a focus on promoting creativity and problem solving.
• Human rights should be promoted worldwide and stop all kinds of violation
• We should promote equity and less disparity within and between nations
• The world should promote sustainable development through less environmental destruction, poverty and deprivation
Chapter Five: Conclusion
This paper discussed an overview of globalization concept. Also the paper discussed theory related to globalization, globalization outstanding issues, criticisms of globalization as well as recommendations.
It is clear that, in globalization world market economy system is known to be the most efficient resource allocation system ever made by human. Globalization can be pro-poor and gender oriented if the developing country implements the correct policies and institutions.
Globalization magnifies the effects of policies and institutions, so policies and institutions that are bad for the poor or that create macroeconomic instability will hurt the poor especially women even more after globalization. Countries need to make a committed effort to implementing policies and institutions that strengthen the trade and financial sectors. These institutions and policies must also fend off problems, such as trade shocks, speculative attacks, volatility, and corruption. Problems are larger after a country globalizes because it is open to massive shocks, but countries must join the globalization trend because those who do not globalize become worse-off, such as the Sub-Saharan African countries, after other countries globalize. Countries that want to help their poor including women must globalize, and they must do so carefully, implementing the proper institutions and policies.
This paper will introduce the concept of globalization and its impact on development of third world countries and the world in general. It will take us through faces of globalization and Tanzania is a case study. The paper will cover five parts:- Introduction, Theories related to globalization (literature review), Analysis of globalization outstanding issues(findings), Possible criticisms and recommendations(discussion) and Conclusion. To start with let us know the meaning of Globalization which can be described as a process by which the people of the world are unified into a single society. This process is a combination of economic, technological, socio-cultural, environmental and political forces. It has become increasingly fashionable to use the term globalization as a description of the international economy and international political relations. Global culture and economic changes is always complex and multidimensional which brings benefits and burdens the world. The benefits and burdens of global culture and economic changes are not distributed evenly among people. It is clear that globalization of the past shapes globalization of the present. Globalization today is characterized by a dramatic increase in and acceleration of earlier kinds of connections. Today, Globalization is about the liberalization and global integration of markets, which involves flow of people, capital, technology, culture, information and ideologies.
CHAPTER TWO: Theory related to outstanding issues on globalization
2.1 The concept of globalization
Globalization can be defined as the diffusion of ideas, practices and technologies in a seamless way throughout the world. Globalization is the intensification of worldwide social relations which link distant localities in such a way that local happenings are shaped by events occurring many miles away (Giddens, 1990)
Globalisation is a complex process at present time which requires careful analysis and follows up. It is a process of inclusion as well as exclusion because it demands that people sacrifice or do way with some separatist tendencies in order to be part and parcel of the global economy and a global culture. Globalisation requires the opening up of boundaries and borders and the exposition of the world’s resources for the common good. It actually assumes that leaving everything functions according to the laws of the market is one of the best ways to ensure proper development (Mwingira, 1998).
Goods and services can freely be sold across the borders and the distance between North and South, East and West is steadily diminishing. However, globalization also confronts us with new problems. The economic forces are becoming more and more intractable, weak group are being marginalised, inequality is increasing, financial crises are being exacerbated, the cultural identity is being re-shaped, community and family ties are being broken down and global crime is on the increase (MS, 2000).Globalisation creates wealth for some and leads to poverty and marginalisation for others. The situation must be reversed and the economic wealth that accompanies the global market must be used to eliminate poverty and hunger, ensure education and health for everybody, and solve the environment problems. We must recognize that globalisation contains a danger increasing even further the gap between those who have access to education and new information technology and all those who do not (MS, 2000).
Globalization is offering the poorest countries new ways of fighting poverty. Development organizations and donor – countries are now sending in the information – and communication technology in order to get rid of poverty. Computers, internet connections and mobile phones are supposed to be in the forefront of the new battle. Tele –and communication centers are being put up in a lot of the big cities in the developing countries, but the rural areas also have to be covered. The basic idea is that internet connections are central development tools (Bech, 2004).
Globalization is not only about communication, though, traveling by plane you can cross continents in a few hours and go from one part of the world to the other in a day. It’s also getting the possibility of tasting food from other cultures and its increased trade between the continents. But so far all this is still only possible to a limited number of people in Tanzania! The people in favor of globalization are seeing the ‘global village’ as a way of eradicating poverty and creating more equality. And the skeptical ones see globalization as a new evil-benefiting the rich and leaving the poor even further behind. The ‘global village’ is both a great opportunity and a possible catastrophe if not handled properly (Bech, 2004)
The process which is characterized by neo-liberal ideologies of the market economy mainly initiated by global political and economic elites has transformed the social economic structure of states in such a manner that there is now an apparent and clear growing gap between the rich and poor. A sense of powerlessness is growing which can lead to a state of depair. A new “African Renaisance” it is on the other hand being perceived without however much being seen on the ground. The transformation of people’s life and the economy for countries like our own is still a change. The CBOs/NGOs in struggle to eradicate poverty cannot afford to ignore the globalization process with its positive and negative consequences on our people. If so, we run the risks of playing match whose net results will be negative hence the failure to meet our development objectives. The challenges for CBOs/NGOs are to look for ways to cope with the process and be alert to find out how the balance between free systems and deregulations and the protection of national identity and priorities for development can be maintained. The need for participatory process and the instance that the voices of the poor also are taken into account is necessary. Otherwise the poor, especially those of Africa will only be objects of globalisation process and not subjects. CBOs/NGOs being and working very close to the people have also a duty to create more awareness to the communities ahead the global trends and prepare them. CBOs/NGOs are called to ensure that people make informed choices about the policies and programmes introduced to them under the cover of poverty eradication so that they can also gain and not end up losing even the little they have like the right to ownership of land and the right of decisions about how to organise their own lives (Mwingira, 1998)
2.2 Globalisation by people
Globalisation by people is where people and communities are placed at the centre of the process of development, rather than being marginalised as it is often the case with the type of neo-liberal globalisation dominating today. People and communities need to be protected through the enforcement of globally binding rules. There is an increasing lack of democratic culture and practice in global decision-making process. Trans-national corporations have more power and influence than many countries. International cooperation is more often than not dominated by the interests of the powerful industrialised nations. It is necessary to balance the freedom enjoyed by the few with global rules that protect the many. Since environment and development is totally intertwined in both the global and the local context, therefore, globalisation must contribute to better living conditions and a better environment for all people. Also it should be known that, wealth and consumption patterns by rich people have negative impact on the poor, and the environmental problems faced by poor can eventually lead to instability and insecurity in other parts of the world. The focus of global negotiations have increasingly turned to the global environmental problems that have a potential impact on the rich countries, such as ozone depletion and climate change, rather than to the environmental problems that have an immediate and serious effect on the poor countries , such as lack of clean drinking water, indoor air pollution and desertification (Bech, 2004).
2.3 Tanzania in the globalization
Global Tanzania’ is not doing well. Tanzanians are not part of the global rush and rural people in the country have probably never heard about the ‘global village’ they are supposed to be living in. Some people are even calling globalization a new kind of colonialism.
Global trade is not really going Tanzania ‘s way, the internet is only used by very few people, traveling by plane is only an option for a limited crowd of rich residents and most educated Tanzanians will leave the country to work abroad if they get the chance.
We cannot wish globalization away! The fast-moving, communicative and consuming monster is here to stay. Africa and Tanzania must act –and act fast to be part of the process and to gain from the new era. More trade inside Africa is needed. But Tanzania must also fight to remove the agricultural subsidies in the developed world. Movements from the rich part of the world is already fighting alongside the Third World trying to change the fact that ‘a cow from the North is receiving 100 times as much financial support as a farmer from south’-as one slogan reads. Tanzania must also have the courage to change its national policies. A better investment climate is needed, more planning ahead is essential and a serious crack-down on the destructive corruption on all levels of society are the keys to bring back trust in Tanzania economy (Bech, 2004).
CHAPTER THREE: Analysis of globalization outstanding issues
Heshmati (2004) finds that globalization reduces poverty among the poor people and women in rural. Also finds that globalization reduces inequality by increasing the income or consumption of the poorest 20%. Globalization can reduce poverty because it acts as a filter that magnifies the impact that institutions and policies have on the poor (Heshmati, 2004). The outcome of globalization for the poor depends on the quality of economic institutions and policies (Bardhan, 2004a). Therefore, if a country has sound policies institutions, globalization can positively affect the poor. The effects of globalization are difficult to isolate from other effects that have had significant impact on the poor. However, some great effects of globalization are as follows:-
• There is a capital savings and technology change
• There is a labor savings in developing countries which increases marginal productivity to unskilled labor
• There is a sector creation that provide jobs for the poor
• There are potentially lower tariff rates which can have an extremely positive pro-poor impact
• Globalization promotes free trade and ultimately benefits everyone because free trade opens access to goods, services, capital, people, information, and technology,
• It provides countries with their best opportunity to advance
• Money comes easily, money goes easily.
• Corporate networks more easily established, illicit and terrorist networks more easily established.
• Computers and programmers move more easily, weapons and sex traffickers move more easily.
• New medical technologies spread more easily.
• There is availability of items in market
• The government receive tax form private business to run the government
• There is an increase in investments
• Choice of varieties is high
• There is an increase of entrepreneurs
• Goods and services are drawn more and more into the market
• There is a perfect information in the market
• Resources are mobilized and allocated in most efficient and cost effective manner
However, Croucher, S (2004) in her book says that globalization has various aspects which affect the world in several different ways such as:
Industrial (alias trans nationalization) - emergence of worldwide production markets and broader access to a range of foreign.
Financial - emergence of worldwide financial markets and better access to external financing for corporate, national and sub national borrowers give opportunity for poor especially women to access credits and other funded projects.
Economic - realization of a global common market, based on the freedom of exchange of goods and capital. Globalization, when considered in a sociological context, has increased economic inequality throughout the world. In global world there is an increasing economic interconnectivity which experience:-
v International division of labor
v Rapidly expanding volume of capital flows
v Capital remains concentrated among the wealthiest nations
Political - political globalization is the creation of a world government which regulates the relationships among nations and guarantees the rights arising from social and economic globalization.
Informational - increase in information flows between geographically remote locations, whereby poor people and women are living.
Cultural - growth of cross-cultural contacts; advent of new categories of consciousness and identities such as Globalism - which embodies cultural diffusion, the desire to consume and enjoy foreign products and ideas, adopt new technology and practices, and participate in a "world culture" Ecological- the advent of global environmental challenges that cannot be solved without international cooperation, such as climate change, cross-boundary water and air pollution, over-fishing of the ocean, and the spread of invasive species. Many factories are built in developing countries where they can pollute freely. Social - the achievement of free circulation by people of all nations.
Chapter Four: Criticisms and recommendations
4.1 Criticisms on globalization
Although, globalization is doing well in the modern world system, the following are criticisms of globalization:-
• Economic globalization is associated with increasing disparities in wealth and power both between nations and between different groups within nations and between public and private sectors
• Poorer people are at disadvantage: While it is true that Globalization encourages free trade among countries on an international level, there are also negative consequences. The main export of poorer people is usually an agricultural good. It is difficult for these people in developing countries to compete with stronger countries that subsidize their own farmers. Because the farmers in the poorer countries cannot compete, they are forced to sell their crops at much lower price than what the market is paying.
• It is difficult for developing countries to compete with stronger countries that provide bigger subsidy to their own farmers. Because the farmers in poor countries can not compete, they are forced to sell their crops at much lower price than what the market is paying.
• With globalization, traditional agricultural exports have gone down due to stiff competition in the world market.
• Extreme volatility for primary commodities, which is bad for the farmers that produce primary commodities, but is mixed for the poor who consume primary commodities because their prices, although volatile, are less expensive;
• Volatility of income, prices, or output in the short-run, which is bad for the poor, unless policies and institutions are implemented that to enhance macroeconomic stability;
• Culture, identity, and tradition are disrupted and reworked. As a result of these global flows, new ways of living and new forms of culture are created :( hybrid cultural forms). Therefore there is a decline of moral responsibility due to free entry of western culture and traditions
• In political terms, globalization has reduced the ability of governments to manage their national economies.
• Most of he developing nations including Tanzania, have been so much dependent on financial support from developed Nations; which can result in making unimplementable national budgets/plans/policies.
• Developing nations have in most cases implementing decisions made by WB and IMF; which in most cases have not been favoring their own national policies.
• With globalization, the developing nations like Tanzania have been experiencing importation of fake and poor goods from other countries.
• Globalization results in unemployment to most of the citizens. The Tanzanian population for instance can not compete in the world market on employment aspect due to the unconvincing educational background undergone in the previous years.
• There is outflow of capital for example mines industry
• In some of activities human capital replaced by machinery and computer technology
4.2 Recommendation on globalization
Though globalization has brought many positive things in human development, it has to do much for pro-poor especially women. Globalization need to address development issues pro-actively through policy dialogue, consultative processes, data analysis, and the full range of operational instruments. This is primarily the job of government, but has to be helped and supported by donors and research/training institutions.
Governments, donors, and the World Bank are urged to take action to address globalization challenges in the context of adjustment and to internalize the recommendations and thinking within their own institutions and programs.
Open up economic decision making bodies like the WTO and the IMF to the people; make them as democratic and transparent as possible and require them to achieve equitable human development and environmental goals; require trade agreements to show their positive impacts on humans and the environment before finalizing them.
Transform the productive monetized economy to enable people’s roles in the reproductive or social economy to be respected, so that we can all live more balanced lives.
Equalize political decision making at all levels.
Mean while alternatives suggested for pro-poor, safety nets, such as education, health, and welfare reform, should be provided for the poor during trade and financial liberalization. These institutions create an opportunity for those who are living in extreme poverty to learn skills that will increase their marginal productivity, and therefore their wage. The redistribution of wealth, such as asset ownership for the poor, targeted lending, progressive taxes, and consumer subsidies, is also considered a safety net that can be used during crises or volatile times to help protect the poor from the cruelty of extreme poverty. In order to realize true development in this global world, therefore:-
Education should be treated as a strategic agent for mind set transformation and creation of a well educated nation sufficiently equipped with the knowledge to completely and competitively solves development challenges which face the nation. In this right the education system should be restructured and transformed qualitatively with a focus on promoting creativity and problem solving.
• Human rights should be promoted worldwide and stop all kinds of violation
• We should promote equity and less disparity within and between nations
• The world should promote sustainable development through less environmental destruction, poverty and deprivation
Chapter Five: Conclusion
This paper discussed an overview of globalization concept. Also the paper discussed theory related to globalization, globalization outstanding issues, criticisms of globalization as well as recommendations.
It is clear that, in globalization world market economy system is known to be the most efficient resource allocation system ever made by human. Globalization can be pro-poor and gender oriented if the developing country implements the correct policies and institutions.
Globalization magnifies the effects of policies and institutions, so policies and institutions that are bad for the poor or that create macroeconomic instability will hurt the poor especially women even more after globalization. Countries need to make a committed effort to implementing policies and institutions that strengthen the trade and financial sectors. These institutions and policies must also fend off problems, such as trade shocks, speculative attacks, volatility, and corruption. Problems are larger after a country globalizes because it is open to massive shocks, but countries must join the globalization trend because those who do not globalize become worse-off, such as the Sub-Saharan African countries, after other countries globalize. Countries that want to help their poor including women must globalize, and they must do so carefully, implementing the proper institutions and policies.
AN EXAMINATION ON THE AVAILABILITY OF FINANCIAL SERVICES IN COMMUNITIES AROUND SOUTH NGURU MOUNTAINS IN MVOMERO DISTRICT, TANZANIA
1.0 Introduction
Finance services refers to the broad range of services, such as: savings, credit, payment transfers, leasing, insurance, etc provided by formal and informal financial services providers operating in urban and rural financial markets. Finance services address the financial needs specifically of the rural population, which form the majority of the Tanzanians. Financial services are a facilitator rather than a creator of economic opportunities. Where economic opportunities already exist, access to credit facilities can contribute to faster and more extensive adoption of improved technology which is consistent with raising the level of productivity and therefore the level of incomes. Therefore, financial services are considered important for business and investment growth in the economy because for any community in order to develop need money for business and investment development.
Economic reforms have been implemented in Tanzania since the mid-1980s which essentially entailed the shift from an administratively managed and public sector led economy to a market oriented and private sector led economy. Financial sector reforms were part of these broader economic reforms. Financial sector reforms took the form of decontrolling interest rates, restructuring existing public sector banks and allowing entry of private banks.
A successful financial sector reform was expected to generate a dynamic process involving substantial changes in the country’s real activities of production, exchange (trade) and finance. Sustainability of the reforms was expected to result in financial deepening, increase in the range of financial products in order to better serve the needs of the economy and enhance transformation of the economy (urban as well as rural) so that production, exchange and other economic activities take place in different ways and in the context of new or reformed institutions.
Growth with economic transformation has at least two implications for the financial system: First, new methods of production and trade require improved technology and infrastructure which exert new demands which may stimulate new changes in finance. Second, changes in the institutional structure may call for changes in the financial operations to match it. For instance, changes from public sector-led development to private sector-led development in a market economy would imply fundamental changes in the operations of financial intermediaries.
The design of the financial sector reforms was initiated with the establishment of the Presidential Commission of Enquiry into the Monetary and Banking System in 1988. The Commission was tasked to examine the banking sector and make recommendations on how to improve its overall performance to support economic growth. The commission recommended broad based financial sector reforms. The main aspects of the proposed reforms were enacted in the Banking and Financial Institutions Act (1991). The Act provided the legal framework which permitted major changes in the financial sector, notably, the entry of private banks into the market and vested Bank of Tanzania with its supervisory and regulatory role. The Government took the initiative to restructure major banks and financial institutions, which included the restructuring and down sizing of the National Bank of Commerce and the recapitalization of the Co-operative and Rural Development Bank through selling of shares to the general public. With introduction of new banks competition has been enhanced, resulting into improvement of quality and quantity of financial services and products offered, at least in urban centres.
Despite this progress in financial services, the rural population has been slow to develop. In some respects there has been a retreat of financial services to the rural areas as indicated by closures of several rural based bank branches during the restructuring program. The composition of financial services was changed as windows for rural finance in those banks were closed or considerably reduced even by those banks which were formerly devoted to rural financing (e.g CRDB). The financial sector reforms are still in progress but there is increasing concern that the majority of the rural population which constitutes 70-80% of the population and comprise 90% of all the poor in Tanzania have not benefited from the financial reforms. They have largely been bypassed by these reforms. The need to enhance accessibility of financial services to the rural poor in Tanzania deserves high priority on the agenda of the on-going financial sector reforms. In recognition of the need for improving access to financial services by the rural population this paper focus on “Examining Rural Finance Services” available in communities around South Nguru Mountains in Mvomero District, Tanzania and propose on what should be done in order to access the reliable financial services.
2.0 Literature Review
2.1 Background information on Rural Financial Services
Samwel Wangwe(2004) in his paper on an “Innovation in Rural Finance in Tanzania” argues that, most of the period since the late 1960s and 1970s the Tanzanian financial sector was mainly government-owned with pervasive government interference in the financial system.
Credit was directed on the basis of government priorities with little regard to credit-worthiness, and banks were convenient agents of fiscal policy. Two institutions, the National Bank of Commerce (NBC) and the Cooperative and Rural Development Bank (CRDB) were dominant in providing rural financial services.
NBC provided working capital and other short term finance to agriculture and other rural activities while CRDB provided development finance to rural development activities. These two institutions had virtual monopoly in their functional areas: Each institution was governed by its own stature and the Bank of Tanzania’s (BOT) supervisory role had been limited. Finally, the environment in which the formal financial institutions operated was also regulated by the state.
Credit was allocated administratively by the BOT which established legal ceiling in bank lending and deposits in addition to regulating interest rules. In the prevailing environment, the financial sector’s performance was very poor and savings mobilisation was neglected. Loans to cooperatives increased, and no pressure was applied on borrowers to repay their loans.
The Government of Tanzania’s(GOT) policies resulted in over-staffed and inefficient banks. These loan policies led in 1988 to 70% of NBC’s loan portfolio to be in arrears and 95% of this was accounted for by parastatals and a substantial share by cooperatives. The Cooperative Rural Development Bank’s (CRDB) rural sector loan portfolio was no better, with 66% of its loan portfolio in arrears as of end 1988. With a non-performing loan portfolio and unable to attract deposits, the formal financial sector was bankrupt, and dependent on financing from the GOT. In response to the difficult financial position, LART was established in 1991 as an institution which would specialize in the recovery of non-performing assets of banks and financial institutions in Tanzania with a view to rescuing public banks and financial institutions burdened with non-performing assets (NPAs).
Most of the loans to the rural sector had been channelled through the cooperatives. In the recovery process, the experience of LART suggests that loan recovery from cooperative unions, where only 44% of the face value was recovered, has been most challenging followed by that from parastatals where 71% of the face value had been recovered by June 2002. The remaining work of loan recovery was hindered by the poor quality of collateral attached to the loans (mainly depicted by the absence of title deeds on land) and to litigations following appeals made by some NPA owners (LART. Annual Report, June 2002).
GOT reformed the financial sector in 1991 and established the Banking and Financial Institutions Act. Banks were restructured and some of them were privatized. Interest rates were liberalized, and financial operations were to be conducted on a more commercial basis. Along with banking de-regulation, the Cooperative’s Act of 1991 was passed which authorized the re-structuring of the Cooperative movement and permitted the establishment of the Savings and Credit Cooperatives (SACCOs). Non-Governmental Organizations (NGOs) also started micro-credit operations in Tanzania.
2.2 Financial services policy frame work
The policy framework has been evolving at various levels. With the Tanzania Development Vision 2025 emphasizing on the need to transform the economy from a predominantly agricultural one with low productivity to a semi industrial economy with modern rural sector, great emphasis is placed on the role of the private sector in stimulating economic growth and developing the rural areas. Thus, the promotion of income generating activities, development of a diverse and strong micro and small scale enterprise sector, and diversifying the skill base through vocational training is an integral part of the strategy for achieving the vision.
Since development of rural finance is dependent on a variety of factors that cut across different sectors, the formulation of the Rural Development Policy and Strategy and the Agricultural Sector Development Strategy are an integral part of the overall policy framework for rural finance. The rural development strategy sees the need to diversify the structure of the economy with a view to reducing dependence on agriculture.
The National Micro-finance Policy covers all policy aspects related to the financial instruments and institutions relevant to rural finance. The policy is a framework that lays out the principles guiding the operations of the microfinance systems, as it covers the provision of financial services to households, small scale farmer and micro enterprises in urban and rural areas.
Cooperatives are a critical institution for facilitating rural finance. Therefore reference to the Cooperative Development Policy (2002) is in order. The new Cooperative Development Policy (2002) has repositioned government commitment to support cooperatives which are owned and managed by their members by creating a conducive environment for their development into competitive entities in the context of a market economy. The policy recognizes economic groups as important initiatives towards membership based cooperatives and emphasizes business minded leadership in running the cooperatives.
In the context of rural finance, the Cooperative Development Policy (2002) supports the establishment of viable cooperative financial institutions. The policy aims to increase participation of marginalized groups in cooperatives and recognizes business groups and commits to assist these groups towards attainment of fully registered cooperatives. According to the policy, the government will encourage the formation of cooperative financial institutions in order to reactivate thrift and saving habits among members. In particular, the policy states that the government will encourage formation of SACCOs within the area of operation of primary societies and will provide technical assistance to the SACCOs. The policy continues to state that the government is committed to encourage and assist the establishment of cooperative banks.
3.0 Financial services available in communities around South Nguru Mountains in Mvomero District
Although finance services is becoming a mature industry in many parts of the world, it has proven largely unable to penetrate remote rural areas because the costs of doing so are high and the demand for credit is quite restricted. Most of the people who live in rural areas (and particularly women and the very poor) receive no services. Thus there is still a large gap between the needs of the poor for financial services and the ability of banks and micro-finance institutions (MFIs) to provide these services. Moreover, the gap cannot be filled by these types of institutions because in most cases they will never be able to cover their costs. In addition to the gap in service delivery, there is also a gap between the products that MFIs can offer and those that are needed by the poor. MFIs tend to emphasize credit. Most are unable to offer savings services, because they are not licensed to take deposits. The conventional view is that credit is the most important service that an MFI can offer, because it provides the means by which the poor can invest their way out of poverty. But this view is increasingly being challenged by practitioners, who observe that many poor people prefer to build their assets through savings rather than increase their risk exposure by taking out loans.
It has found that finance services which are available in communities around the South Nguru Mountains are in four categories of institutions:- banks (i.e CRDB and NMB Bank), member based organizations and associations such as cooperatives (i.e MTIBWA OUTGROWER ASSOCIATION (MOA)- SACCOS) and NGOs (i.e CARE in Tanzania). It has found that, CRDB and NMB Bank within the communities provide financial services to a majority of the low-income population either directly or indirectly through linkages with NGOs or savings and credit institutions as a viable poverty reduction tool. But community members have experienced the following lessons with CRDB and NMB financial services:
· Security in rural areas is problematic in the absence of formal registration of assets that could function as collateral titles and even when they are registered their market value is low.
· Short term lending is not appropriate for most of production activities in the rural areas.
· Linking with intermediate institutions which are closer to the farmer clients reduces the cost of collecting and processing information about potential borrowers. Linkage to SACCOs and Community Banks has proved useful in cutting down administrative costs, enhancing loan recovery and improving reach without having to physically locate branches in all areas of operation
CARE Tanzania is one of development organization among many things it promotes financial services to rural people in Tanzania. As part of a nation wide initiative for poverty reduction CARE Tanzania has been pursuing its objective of assisting micro entrepreneurs by promoting savings and loans service.
Currently, CARE TANZANIA is assisting self help groups commonly called Village Savings and Loan Groups in communities around South Nguru mountains in Mvomero District. The VS&L group is a self-selected group of people, (usually unregistered) who pool their money into a fund from which members can borrow. The money is paid back with interest, causing the fund to grow. The regular savings contributions to the group are deposited with an end date in mind (usually between 8-12 months) for distribution of all or part of the total funds (including interest earnings) to the individual members, usually on the basis of a formula that links payout to the amount saved. This lump sum distribution provides a large amount of money that each member can then apply to his/her own needs. From this perspective a VS&L groups is primarily savings clubs, which have proven popular worldwide.
VS&L groups are usually more attractive to participants, because they offer interest on savings and provide loans in useful amounts, usually in excess of the borrower’s savings, at times that are convenient to the borrower. In this way the funds are constantly working, earning interest and not just sitting idle in a bank, or being directed towards consumption. The loans allow the members to meet their small, short-term financial needs for income generating activities, social obligations and emergencies without having to borrow from a money lender, take an expensive supplier advance, or rely on their relatives. This offers a tremendous boost to social security. The reason that they are not so widespread is that they are more complex to administer and require a system of record-keeping.
The Mtibwa sugarcane out-growers’ scheme demonstrates a good example of institutional and organizational development that is desirable for effective production and marketing improvement. These include the out-growers associations; vertical linkages between growers and buyer, and interlinkages between output markets and credit markets that are beneficial to both parties.
Following the increase of capacity and commercialization of sugarcane production in Mtibwa, the out-growers saw the need of forming an association. In 1996 the association was formed with 25 founder members. It is known as the Mtibwa Out-growers Association (MOA). The aim is advocacy in cane production and business, fair play in price regulations, contractual agreement, payment, and sustainable development of cane production, credits, input supply, extension services and training. Currently MOA has 3,500 members. MOA has managed to motivate its members to start a Savings and Credit Cooperative Society (MOA SACCOS), which is operating under the consultation of CRDB Bank Ltd.
The Minister of Agriculture and Food Security (Hon. Charles Keenja) launched the organization on 28th June at Madizini village in Mtibwa, where the head office is situated. The organization has plans to become a leader on credit facilities in Morogoro region. The organization will have 65,000 shares worth TAS 10,000 each. MOA SACCOS is visioning to offer all bank services, like other commercial banks in the future. It expects to accumulate a capital worth TAS 1,761 million from the members’ shares, financial institutions, grants and customers’ savings. Mtibwa Outgrowers Association has facilitated acquisition of grants and loans from various organizations. For example, African Development Foundation provided a grant amounting to TAS 192 million to MOA in 2001/02. This loan was partly used in the establishment of the MOA-SACCOS. A total of TAS 83 million had already been loaned to members at 18% interest rate per year. Similarly, CRDB Bank has provided TAS 300 million to be loaned to farmers through MOA-SACCOS.
The Government and non-governmental organizations have volunteered in promoting the development projects in the area. The government extension officers in Mtibwa work in partnership with MOA, to ensure sustainable sugarcane production. In November 2001, the Sugar Act was established to ensure fair play in sugarcane business. In July 2002, the Sugar Board was launched. MOA participated in this process to ensure that farmers are represented in such forums.
Apart from all these efforts, the war against poverty is still ongoing. It is estimated that 40-60% of people who are engaged on the scheme live under the poverty line, although they are not among the poorest of the poor nationally. In addition, for out growers there are several risks associated with participation. These risks include the following:-
Over-dependence on a monophony buyer without legal mechanisms for back-up. Late payments to out growers for sugar cane delivered are a good example of this threat. Out growers indicated late payments limiting their opportunities, and sometimes resulting into reduced investments in agriculture.
Some small-scale farmers, who are in most cases also low-resource, have experienced special problems such as loss of produce as they are denied harvesting services. This problem may be associated with high per unit cost of harvesting due to bad plot conditions (e.g. when flooded), long distances, small farm size and poor crop. This is a significant source of risk to poor farmers.
Most of the production area is prone to natural disasters (such as drought, floods, and accidental burning). Families that grow sugarcane on marginal lands have, from time to time, experienced crop losses due to these problems.
Farm sizes and availability of credit are important factors that determine the profitability of the farm and its sustainability. Small-scale low resources farmers have continued living under undesirable conditions. For some they have worsened due to their inability to re-invest in their sugarcane plots. For such farmers, the sugarcane crop remains on the farm for too long leading to a 60% decrease in yield and decline in sugar content to as low as 3%.
4.0 Proposal on what should be done in order these rural communities to access reliable financial services
The Agricultural Inputs Credit Fund should be strengthened by government to extend credit for the purchase of agricultural inputs since the majority of rural people depend on agriculture. The allocations of financial resources to this Fund should be unstable and meet requirements. The Fund is supposed to be revolving and growing in order to reach large number of people.
Strengthening SACCOs and improving marketing (making sure that farmers have a market and at reasonable prices) are supportive attributes for the development of rural finance.The capacity of SACCOs should be built to operate like business and must be staffed by entrepreneurial and knowledgeable leaders. Building competence in SACCOs through capacity building initiatives deserves priority to enable these institutions operate more efficiently and competitively. SACCOs and community banks will need assistance in acquiring technical and managerial competence and institutional capacity building.
Since security in rural areas is problematic in the absence of formal registration of assets that could function as collateral titles and even when they are registered their market value is low. There is need to innovatively search for alternative ways of managing to provide financial services without necessarily demanding physical collateral. Longer term credit is needed.
There is a need to Link Banks to SACCOs and Community Banks in order to cutting down administrative costs, enhancing loan recovery and improving reach without having to physically locate branches in all areas of operation. In addition to this, banks should provide longer term credit to these SACCOs and community banks.
Emphasis should be put on Village Savings and Loan groups (VS&L) scheme since the experience shows that, working through groups has helped to introduce peer pressure in loan recovery and in providing information about borrowers at low cost. Therefore there is a need to encourage rural people to employ new and appropriate methods of saving and lending like VS&L, which provided very small loans without collateral at full cost interest rates that are repayable in frequent installments and that the vast majority repaid on time.
The savings banks should have an instinctive sympathy for improving access; moreover an economy is very unlikely to be approaching full access unless it has strong savings banks. As always the performance of banking systems cannot be understood in isolation from the system of political economy within which they operate. Governments are likely to do more to improve access by improving the foundations of civil society than by trying to mandate access and interfere with product design. For poor to be easy to access products and services, savings banks should be able to capture an important part of the savings, bringing in this way considerable parts of the world population in the formal financial sector. Furthermore, savings banks should recycle more than half of their deposits as credits, which means that they play an essential role in the field of consumer banking, micro financing and financial services to small and medium enterprises.
5.0 Conclusion
Access to finance services is an essential driver for economic growth in developing and transition economies. It is also important in developed economies, where it stimulates markedly the social inclusion of certain groups of the population. Access to finance empowers people, gives them the opportunity to have an account, to save and invest, to insure their homes or to take a loan and in many cases to break the chains of poverty. That is why savings banks and socially committed retail banks have made access to finance one of the underlying principles of their business activities. Savings and socially committed retail banks are well positioned to succeed in enhancing this access on a global level; they are traditionally very close to their customers, thanks to their extensive regional branch networks and the provision of low threshold products and services
Finance services refers to the broad range of services, such as: savings, credit, payment transfers, leasing, insurance, etc provided by formal and informal financial services providers operating in urban and rural financial markets. Finance services address the financial needs specifically of the rural population, which form the majority of the Tanzanians. Financial services are a facilitator rather than a creator of economic opportunities. Where economic opportunities already exist, access to credit facilities can contribute to faster and more extensive adoption of improved technology which is consistent with raising the level of productivity and therefore the level of incomes. Therefore, financial services are considered important for business and investment growth in the economy because for any community in order to develop need money for business and investment development.
Economic reforms have been implemented in Tanzania since the mid-1980s which essentially entailed the shift from an administratively managed and public sector led economy to a market oriented and private sector led economy. Financial sector reforms were part of these broader economic reforms. Financial sector reforms took the form of decontrolling interest rates, restructuring existing public sector banks and allowing entry of private banks.
A successful financial sector reform was expected to generate a dynamic process involving substantial changes in the country’s real activities of production, exchange (trade) and finance. Sustainability of the reforms was expected to result in financial deepening, increase in the range of financial products in order to better serve the needs of the economy and enhance transformation of the economy (urban as well as rural) so that production, exchange and other economic activities take place in different ways and in the context of new or reformed institutions.
Growth with economic transformation has at least two implications for the financial system: First, new methods of production and trade require improved technology and infrastructure which exert new demands which may stimulate new changes in finance. Second, changes in the institutional structure may call for changes in the financial operations to match it. For instance, changes from public sector-led development to private sector-led development in a market economy would imply fundamental changes in the operations of financial intermediaries.
The design of the financial sector reforms was initiated with the establishment of the Presidential Commission of Enquiry into the Monetary and Banking System in 1988. The Commission was tasked to examine the banking sector and make recommendations on how to improve its overall performance to support economic growth. The commission recommended broad based financial sector reforms. The main aspects of the proposed reforms were enacted in the Banking and Financial Institutions Act (1991). The Act provided the legal framework which permitted major changes in the financial sector, notably, the entry of private banks into the market and vested Bank of Tanzania with its supervisory and regulatory role. The Government took the initiative to restructure major banks and financial institutions, which included the restructuring and down sizing of the National Bank of Commerce and the recapitalization of the Co-operative and Rural Development Bank through selling of shares to the general public. With introduction of new banks competition has been enhanced, resulting into improvement of quality and quantity of financial services and products offered, at least in urban centres.
Despite this progress in financial services, the rural population has been slow to develop. In some respects there has been a retreat of financial services to the rural areas as indicated by closures of several rural based bank branches during the restructuring program. The composition of financial services was changed as windows for rural finance in those banks were closed or considerably reduced even by those banks which were formerly devoted to rural financing (e.g CRDB). The financial sector reforms are still in progress but there is increasing concern that the majority of the rural population which constitutes 70-80% of the population and comprise 90% of all the poor in Tanzania have not benefited from the financial reforms. They have largely been bypassed by these reforms. The need to enhance accessibility of financial services to the rural poor in Tanzania deserves high priority on the agenda of the on-going financial sector reforms. In recognition of the need for improving access to financial services by the rural population this paper focus on “Examining Rural Finance Services” available in communities around South Nguru Mountains in Mvomero District, Tanzania and propose on what should be done in order to access the reliable financial services.
2.0 Literature Review
2.1 Background information on Rural Financial Services
Samwel Wangwe(2004) in his paper on an “Innovation in Rural Finance in Tanzania” argues that, most of the period since the late 1960s and 1970s the Tanzanian financial sector was mainly government-owned with pervasive government interference in the financial system.
Credit was directed on the basis of government priorities with little regard to credit-worthiness, and banks were convenient agents of fiscal policy. Two institutions, the National Bank of Commerce (NBC) and the Cooperative and Rural Development Bank (CRDB) were dominant in providing rural financial services.
NBC provided working capital and other short term finance to agriculture and other rural activities while CRDB provided development finance to rural development activities. These two institutions had virtual monopoly in their functional areas: Each institution was governed by its own stature and the Bank of Tanzania’s (BOT) supervisory role had been limited. Finally, the environment in which the formal financial institutions operated was also regulated by the state.
Credit was allocated administratively by the BOT which established legal ceiling in bank lending and deposits in addition to regulating interest rules. In the prevailing environment, the financial sector’s performance was very poor and savings mobilisation was neglected. Loans to cooperatives increased, and no pressure was applied on borrowers to repay their loans.
The Government of Tanzania’s(GOT) policies resulted in over-staffed and inefficient banks. These loan policies led in 1988 to 70% of NBC’s loan portfolio to be in arrears and 95% of this was accounted for by parastatals and a substantial share by cooperatives. The Cooperative Rural Development Bank’s (CRDB) rural sector loan portfolio was no better, with 66% of its loan portfolio in arrears as of end 1988. With a non-performing loan portfolio and unable to attract deposits, the formal financial sector was bankrupt, and dependent on financing from the GOT. In response to the difficult financial position, LART was established in 1991 as an institution which would specialize in the recovery of non-performing assets of banks and financial institutions in Tanzania with a view to rescuing public banks and financial institutions burdened with non-performing assets (NPAs).
Most of the loans to the rural sector had been channelled through the cooperatives. In the recovery process, the experience of LART suggests that loan recovery from cooperative unions, where only 44% of the face value was recovered, has been most challenging followed by that from parastatals where 71% of the face value had been recovered by June 2002. The remaining work of loan recovery was hindered by the poor quality of collateral attached to the loans (mainly depicted by the absence of title deeds on land) and to litigations following appeals made by some NPA owners (LART. Annual Report, June 2002).
GOT reformed the financial sector in 1991 and established the Banking and Financial Institutions Act. Banks were restructured and some of them were privatized. Interest rates were liberalized, and financial operations were to be conducted on a more commercial basis. Along with banking de-regulation, the Cooperative’s Act of 1991 was passed which authorized the re-structuring of the Cooperative movement and permitted the establishment of the Savings and Credit Cooperatives (SACCOs). Non-Governmental Organizations (NGOs) also started micro-credit operations in Tanzania.
2.2 Financial services policy frame work
The policy framework has been evolving at various levels. With the Tanzania Development Vision 2025 emphasizing on the need to transform the economy from a predominantly agricultural one with low productivity to a semi industrial economy with modern rural sector, great emphasis is placed on the role of the private sector in stimulating economic growth and developing the rural areas. Thus, the promotion of income generating activities, development of a diverse and strong micro and small scale enterprise sector, and diversifying the skill base through vocational training is an integral part of the strategy for achieving the vision.
Since development of rural finance is dependent on a variety of factors that cut across different sectors, the formulation of the Rural Development Policy and Strategy and the Agricultural Sector Development Strategy are an integral part of the overall policy framework for rural finance. The rural development strategy sees the need to diversify the structure of the economy with a view to reducing dependence on agriculture.
The National Micro-finance Policy covers all policy aspects related to the financial instruments and institutions relevant to rural finance. The policy is a framework that lays out the principles guiding the operations of the microfinance systems, as it covers the provision of financial services to households, small scale farmer and micro enterprises in urban and rural areas.
Cooperatives are a critical institution for facilitating rural finance. Therefore reference to the Cooperative Development Policy (2002) is in order. The new Cooperative Development Policy (2002) has repositioned government commitment to support cooperatives which are owned and managed by their members by creating a conducive environment for their development into competitive entities in the context of a market economy. The policy recognizes economic groups as important initiatives towards membership based cooperatives and emphasizes business minded leadership in running the cooperatives.
In the context of rural finance, the Cooperative Development Policy (2002) supports the establishment of viable cooperative financial institutions. The policy aims to increase participation of marginalized groups in cooperatives and recognizes business groups and commits to assist these groups towards attainment of fully registered cooperatives. According to the policy, the government will encourage the formation of cooperative financial institutions in order to reactivate thrift and saving habits among members. In particular, the policy states that the government will encourage formation of SACCOs within the area of operation of primary societies and will provide technical assistance to the SACCOs. The policy continues to state that the government is committed to encourage and assist the establishment of cooperative banks.
3.0 Financial services available in communities around South Nguru Mountains in Mvomero District
Although finance services is becoming a mature industry in many parts of the world, it has proven largely unable to penetrate remote rural areas because the costs of doing so are high and the demand for credit is quite restricted. Most of the people who live in rural areas (and particularly women and the very poor) receive no services. Thus there is still a large gap between the needs of the poor for financial services and the ability of banks and micro-finance institutions (MFIs) to provide these services. Moreover, the gap cannot be filled by these types of institutions because in most cases they will never be able to cover their costs. In addition to the gap in service delivery, there is also a gap between the products that MFIs can offer and those that are needed by the poor. MFIs tend to emphasize credit. Most are unable to offer savings services, because they are not licensed to take deposits. The conventional view is that credit is the most important service that an MFI can offer, because it provides the means by which the poor can invest their way out of poverty. But this view is increasingly being challenged by practitioners, who observe that many poor people prefer to build their assets through savings rather than increase their risk exposure by taking out loans.
It has found that finance services which are available in communities around the South Nguru Mountains are in four categories of institutions:- banks (i.e CRDB and NMB Bank), member based organizations and associations such as cooperatives (i.e MTIBWA OUTGROWER ASSOCIATION (MOA)- SACCOS) and NGOs (i.e CARE in Tanzania). It has found that, CRDB and NMB Bank within the communities provide financial services to a majority of the low-income population either directly or indirectly through linkages with NGOs or savings and credit institutions as a viable poverty reduction tool. But community members have experienced the following lessons with CRDB and NMB financial services:
· Security in rural areas is problematic in the absence of formal registration of assets that could function as collateral titles and even when they are registered their market value is low.
· Short term lending is not appropriate for most of production activities in the rural areas.
· Linking with intermediate institutions which are closer to the farmer clients reduces the cost of collecting and processing information about potential borrowers. Linkage to SACCOs and Community Banks has proved useful in cutting down administrative costs, enhancing loan recovery and improving reach without having to physically locate branches in all areas of operation
CARE Tanzania is one of development organization among many things it promotes financial services to rural people in Tanzania. As part of a nation wide initiative for poverty reduction CARE Tanzania has been pursuing its objective of assisting micro entrepreneurs by promoting savings and loans service.
Currently, CARE TANZANIA is assisting self help groups commonly called Village Savings and Loan Groups in communities around South Nguru mountains in Mvomero District. The VS&L group is a self-selected group of people, (usually unregistered) who pool their money into a fund from which members can borrow. The money is paid back with interest, causing the fund to grow. The regular savings contributions to the group are deposited with an end date in mind (usually between 8-12 months) for distribution of all or part of the total funds (including interest earnings) to the individual members, usually on the basis of a formula that links payout to the amount saved. This lump sum distribution provides a large amount of money that each member can then apply to his/her own needs. From this perspective a VS&L groups is primarily savings clubs, which have proven popular worldwide.
VS&L groups are usually more attractive to participants, because they offer interest on savings and provide loans in useful amounts, usually in excess of the borrower’s savings, at times that are convenient to the borrower. In this way the funds are constantly working, earning interest and not just sitting idle in a bank, or being directed towards consumption. The loans allow the members to meet their small, short-term financial needs for income generating activities, social obligations and emergencies without having to borrow from a money lender, take an expensive supplier advance, or rely on their relatives. This offers a tremendous boost to social security. The reason that they are not so widespread is that they are more complex to administer and require a system of record-keeping.
The Mtibwa sugarcane out-growers’ scheme demonstrates a good example of institutional and organizational development that is desirable for effective production and marketing improvement. These include the out-growers associations; vertical linkages between growers and buyer, and interlinkages between output markets and credit markets that are beneficial to both parties.
Following the increase of capacity and commercialization of sugarcane production in Mtibwa, the out-growers saw the need of forming an association. In 1996 the association was formed with 25 founder members. It is known as the Mtibwa Out-growers Association (MOA). The aim is advocacy in cane production and business, fair play in price regulations, contractual agreement, payment, and sustainable development of cane production, credits, input supply, extension services and training. Currently MOA has 3,500 members. MOA has managed to motivate its members to start a Savings and Credit Cooperative Society (MOA SACCOS), which is operating under the consultation of CRDB Bank Ltd.
The Minister of Agriculture and Food Security (Hon. Charles Keenja) launched the organization on 28th June at Madizini village in Mtibwa, where the head office is situated. The organization has plans to become a leader on credit facilities in Morogoro region. The organization will have 65,000 shares worth TAS 10,000 each. MOA SACCOS is visioning to offer all bank services, like other commercial banks in the future. It expects to accumulate a capital worth TAS 1,761 million from the members’ shares, financial institutions, grants and customers’ savings. Mtibwa Outgrowers Association has facilitated acquisition of grants and loans from various organizations. For example, African Development Foundation provided a grant amounting to TAS 192 million to MOA in 2001/02. This loan was partly used in the establishment of the MOA-SACCOS. A total of TAS 83 million had already been loaned to members at 18% interest rate per year. Similarly, CRDB Bank has provided TAS 300 million to be loaned to farmers through MOA-SACCOS.
The Government and non-governmental organizations have volunteered in promoting the development projects in the area. The government extension officers in Mtibwa work in partnership with MOA, to ensure sustainable sugarcane production. In November 2001, the Sugar Act was established to ensure fair play in sugarcane business. In July 2002, the Sugar Board was launched. MOA participated in this process to ensure that farmers are represented in such forums.
Apart from all these efforts, the war against poverty is still ongoing. It is estimated that 40-60% of people who are engaged on the scheme live under the poverty line, although they are not among the poorest of the poor nationally. In addition, for out growers there are several risks associated with participation. These risks include the following:-
Over-dependence on a monophony buyer without legal mechanisms for back-up. Late payments to out growers for sugar cane delivered are a good example of this threat. Out growers indicated late payments limiting their opportunities, and sometimes resulting into reduced investments in agriculture.
Some small-scale farmers, who are in most cases also low-resource, have experienced special problems such as loss of produce as they are denied harvesting services. This problem may be associated with high per unit cost of harvesting due to bad plot conditions (e.g. when flooded), long distances, small farm size and poor crop. This is a significant source of risk to poor farmers.
Most of the production area is prone to natural disasters (such as drought, floods, and accidental burning). Families that grow sugarcane on marginal lands have, from time to time, experienced crop losses due to these problems.
Farm sizes and availability of credit are important factors that determine the profitability of the farm and its sustainability. Small-scale low resources farmers have continued living under undesirable conditions. For some they have worsened due to their inability to re-invest in their sugarcane plots. For such farmers, the sugarcane crop remains on the farm for too long leading to a 60% decrease in yield and decline in sugar content to as low as 3%.
4.0 Proposal on what should be done in order these rural communities to access reliable financial services
The Agricultural Inputs Credit Fund should be strengthened by government to extend credit for the purchase of agricultural inputs since the majority of rural people depend on agriculture. The allocations of financial resources to this Fund should be unstable and meet requirements. The Fund is supposed to be revolving and growing in order to reach large number of people.
Strengthening SACCOs and improving marketing (making sure that farmers have a market and at reasonable prices) are supportive attributes for the development of rural finance.The capacity of SACCOs should be built to operate like business and must be staffed by entrepreneurial and knowledgeable leaders. Building competence in SACCOs through capacity building initiatives deserves priority to enable these institutions operate more efficiently and competitively. SACCOs and community banks will need assistance in acquiring technical and managerial competence and institutional capacity building.
Since security in rural areas is problematic in the absence of formal registration of assets that could function as collateral titles and even when they are registered their market value is low. There is need to innovatively search for alternative ways of managing to provide financial services without necessarily demanding physical collateral. Longer term credit is needed.
There is a need to Link Banks to SACCOs and Community Banks in order to cutting down administrative costs, enhancing loan recovery and improving reach without having to physically locate branches in all areas of operation. In addition to this, banks should provide longer term credit to these SACCOs and community banks.
Emphasis should be put on Village Savings and Loan groups (VS&L) scheme since the experience shows that, working through groups has helped to introduce peer pressure in loan recovery and in providing information about borrowers at low cost. Therefore there is a need to encourage rural people to employ new and appropriate methods of saving and lending like VS&L, which provided very small loans without collateral at full cost interest rates that are repayable in frequent installments and that the vast majority repaid on time.
The savings banks should have an instinctive sympathy for improving access; moreover an economy is very unlikely to be approaching full access unless it has strong savings banks. As always the performance of banking systems cannot be understood in isolation from the system of political economy within which they operate. Governments are likely to do more to improve access by improving the foundations of civil society than by trying to mandate access and interfere with product design. For poor to be easy to access products and services, savings banks should be able to capture an important part of the savings, bringing in this way considerable parts of the world population in the formal financial sector. Furthermore, savings banks should recycle more than half of their deposits as credits, which means that they play an essential role in the field of consumer banking, micro financing and financial services to small and medium enterprises.
5.0 Conclusion
Access to finance services is an essential driver for economic growth in developing and transition economies. It is also important in developed economies, where it stimulates markedly the social inclusion of certain groups of the population. Access to finance empowers people, gives them the opportunity to have an account, to save and invest, to insure their homes or to take a loan and in many cases to break the chains of poverty. That is why savings banks and socially committed retail banks have made access to finance one of the underlying principles of their business activities. Savings and socially committed retail banks are well positioned to succeed in enhancing this access on a global level; they are traditionally very close to their customers, thanks to their extensive regional branch networks and the provision of low threshold products and services
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